生物医学工程研究所邓振生Zhensheng Deng from Institute of
Biomedical Engineering
Principles of Medical Imaging (医学成像原理)
Personal Data:
Email Address: dzs@fmmu.edu.cn,or
bmedzs@csu.edu.cnTel. No. : 8836362 (Work)
Office Location: #226, Di Xue Lou
Text Book:
Physical Principles of Medical Imaging, Second Edition, By Perry Sprawls & Ye-cho Huang
Reference-book:
Medical Imaging Physics, Fourth Edition, By William R. Hendee, & E. Russell Ritenour
Chapter 1. Preface
(前言)
1.1 对医学成像过程理解的意义
任何医学成像模式的有效利用和图像的
解释都要求对图像形成过程的物理原理的理解。这是因为显化特定解剖结构或病理状态的能力取决于由使用者选定的特定模式的固有特征和成像因素组。能见度和成像因素之间的关系相当复杂,并通常涉及到图像质量的各方面的折衷和平衡。
Some Words Important In This
Paragraph
1. anatomical structures, 2. pathologic conditions,
3. medical imaging modality, 4. compromise, 5. trade off, 6. visibility, 7. visualize.
1.2 医学成像对人体可能的风险
所有的成像方法都在病人体内淀积某种
形式的能量。这样并非没有风险。辐射曝光量通常是一个可变因子,它常常影响图像质量。一种优化图像的程式这样一个过程,在这个过程中,这两个因素——图像质量和辐射曝光量被适当地平衡。
1. Image Quality,
2. Radiation Exposure。
1.3 本教材的用途
本课本提供了使医生在成像过程中的所
有阶段中都能够做出适当的技术决策物理学和科学知识。
本书主要为在放射科住院医生培训计划中学习的医生们而作。它同时还是常常面临着日复一日地关于成像设备、过程和病人安全决策的实践放射学家的有用的参考资料。
1.4 本教材的资料来源
本教材包括许多来自作者先前的著作的
资料:The Physical Principles of
Diagnostic Radiology, The Physics and Instrumentation of Nuclear Medicine 和医学成像的物理原理的第一版,它已经在超声、ECT(Emission Tomography)和MRI(Magnetic Resonance Imaging)等领域中进行了更新和增补。
1.5 本教材的目的
主题和概念表达的选择基于Emory
University的放射住院医生培训项目的物理部分,它假设没有先前的物理知识,而读者又有理解医学成像职业的物理原理的相当真诚的愿望。
1.6 本教材的目标
特定的目标是增强读者的能力以:
理解图像形成的基本原理;
选择适合特定临床要求的成像因素;
优化关于图像质量和病人曝光量的成像过程;与技术组成员有效地沟通;
在选择设备与成像源时,做出明智的决策。
Chapter 2
Image Characteristics and
Quality
By Zhensheng Deng From
Institute of BME
Summary:
2.1 Introduction2.2ImageQuality
2.3
TissueCharacteristicsandImageViews
2.4ImageViewingConditions2.5ObserverPerformance
2.1 Introduction
Tothehumanobserver,theinternalstructuresandfunctionsofthehumanbodyarenotgenerallyvisible.However,byvarioustechnologies,imagescanbecreatedthroughwhichthemedicalprofessionalcanlookintothebodytodiagnoseabnormalconditionsandguidetherapeuticprocedures.Themedicalimageisawindowtothebody.Noimagewindowrevealseverything.
对于人类观察者而言,人体内部结构和
功能一般来说是看不见的。然而,借助于各种技术,我们可以创建图像。通过图像,医务人员就可以窥视人体以诊断非正常状态并指导治疗过程。医学图像是人体的一个窗口,没有图像窗口可以揭示一切。
Different medical imaging methods reveal different characteristics of the human body. With each method, the range of image quality and structure visibility can be considerable, depending on characteristics of the imaging equipment, skill of the operator, and compromises with factors such as
patient radiation exposure and imaging time.
不同的医学成像方法揭示人体的不
同特征。利用每一方法,图像质量和结构的能见度的范围可能是相当大的,这取决于成像设备的特征、操作者的技巧以及与病人曝光量和成像时间等这样的因素的折衷。
Figure 1-1 is an overview of the medical imaging process. The five major components are the patient, the imaging system, the system operator, the image itself, and the observer. The objective is to make an object or condition within the patient's body visible to the observer. The visibility of specific anatomical featuresdepends on the characteristics of the imaging system and the manner in which it is operated.
图1-1 (p2)是一幅医学成像过程的总体视
图。五个主要部分组成是病人,成像系统,系统的操作者,图像本身以及观察者。它的目的是使人体内部的一个目标(Object)或者状态(Condition)能够被观察者看见。特殊解剖特征的可视性取决于成像系统的特性和操作者的风格。
Most medical imaging systems have a considerable number of variables that must be selected by the operator. They can be
changeable system components, such as intensifying screens(增感屏)in radiography, transducersin sonography, or coilsin magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
大多数医学成像系统都具有必须
由操作人员选择的一定数量的变量。它们可能是可变的系统的组件,例如放射摄影中使用的增感屏,超声波检查术中的换能器,磁共振成像(MRI)中的线圈等。
However, most variables are adjustable physical quantities associated with the imaging process such as kilovoltagein radiography, gainin sonography, and echo time(TE) in MRI. The values selected will determine the quality of the image and the
visibility of specific body features.
然而,大多数变量是与成像过程
相关联的可调节的物理量,例如,放射摄影中的千伏值,超声检查术中的的增益和MRI中的回波时间等。这些选定的值将决定图像的质量和特定人体特征的能见度。
The ability of an observer to detect signs of a pathologic process
depends on a combination of three major factors:(1) image quality
(2) viewing conditions(3) observer performance characteristics
观察者检测病理进程标志
的能力取决于三个因素的综合:
1)图像质量;2)观看条件;
3)观察者的执行特征。
2.2 Image Quality
The quality of a medical image is
determined by the imaging method, the characteristicsof the equipment, and the imaging variablesselected by the operator. Image quality is not a single factor but is a composite of at least five factors:contrast, blur, noise, artifacts, and distortion, as shown in Figure 1-1. The relationships between image quality factors and imaging system variables are discussed in detail in later chapters.
图像质量
一幅医学图像的质量由成像方法、设备特性以及操作者所选定的变量所确定。图像质量不是单一因素,而是至少五个因素的复合:对比度,模糊,噪声,伪迹和失真等,如图1-1所示。图像质量因素和成像系统变量之间的关系将在后续章节中详细讨论。
Here show fig.1-1 again.
The human body contains many structures and objects that are simultaneously imaged by most
imaging methods. We often consider a single object in relation to its
immediate background.In fact, with most imaging procedures the visibility of an object is determined by this relationshiprather than by the overall characteristics of the total image.
人体包含许多可以被绝大多数成
像方法同时成像的结构和目标,而我们通常仅考虑与其直接背景有关的一个单一目标。事实上,利用大多数成像程序,一个目标的能见度是由这种关系而不是由整个图像的全部特征确定的。
ConsiderFigure1-2.Thetaskofeveryimagingsystemistotranslateaspecifictissuecharacteristicintoimageshadesofgrayorcolor.Ifcontrastisadequate,theobjectwillbevisible.Thedegreeofcontrastintheimagedependsoncharacteristicsofboththeobjectandtheimagingsystem.
考虑图1-2。每一种成像系统的
任务都是将特定的组织特性翻译成灰色或彩色的图像阴影。若对比度足够,则该目标将是看得见的。图像中的反差程度取决于该目标和成像系统两者的特征。
2.2.1 Image Contrast
Contrastmeansdifference.Inanimage,contrastcanbeintheformofdifferentshadesofgray,lightintensities,orcolors.Contrastisthemostfundamentalcharacteristicofanimage.Anobjectwithinthebodywillbevisibleinanimageonlyifithassufficientphysicalcontrastrelativetosurroundingtissue.However,imagecontrastmuchbeyondthatrequiredforgoodobjectvisibilitygenerallyservesnousefulpurposeandinmanycasesisundesirable.
图像对比度
对比度意味着差别。在图像中,对比度可能以不同灰色、光强度或彩色的阴影出现。对比度是一幅图像中最基本的特征。仅当人体中的一个目标相对于周围组织有足够的物理对比度时,该目标才有可能被在图像中发现。然而,远远超出良好的目标能见度所需要的图像对比度一般来讲是没有用途的,在许多场合下是不希望的。
The physical contrastof an object must representa difference in one or more tissue
characteristics. For example, in radiography, objects can be imaged relative to their
surrounding tissueif there is an adequate difference in either densityor atomic numberand if the object is sufficiently thick.
一个目标的物理对比度必须表征
一种或者一种以上的组织特征的差别。例如,在放射摄影中,如果密度或原子序数有足够的差别,而且如果该目标足够厚的话,那么,该目标就可以相对于其周围的组织成像。
When a value is assigned to contrast, it refers to the difference between two specific points or areas in an image. In most cases we are interested in the contrast between a specific structure or object in the image and the area around it or its background.
当给对比度赋值时,指的是
(就涉及到)一幅图像中两个特定点或面之间的差别。在绝大多数情况下,我们仅对图像中的一个特定结构或目标和围绕它或者它的背景面积之间的对比度感兴趣。
Here, I would like to remind
you’ll that please pay attention to the difference between PHYSICAL
OBJECT CONTRASTin human body and OBJECT CONTRASTin an image!
2.2.2Contrast Sensitivity
The degree of physical object contrastrequired for an object to be visible in an image depends on the imaging methodand the characteristics of the imaging system.The primary characteristic of an imaging systemthat establishes the relationship between image contrast and object contrastis its contrast sensitivity.
在一幅图像中,一个目标被看见
所需要的自然目标对比度的程度取决于成像方法和成像系统的特征。建立图像对比度和物体对比度之间的关系的成像系统的主要特征是它的对比度敏感性。
Consider the situation shown in
Figure 1-3. The Circular objectsare the same sizebut are filled with differentconcentrations of iodine contrast medium. That is, they have
different levels of object contrast. When the imaging system has a relatively low contrast sensitivity, only objects with a high concentration of iodine(ie, high object contrast) will be visible in the image. If the imaging system has a high contrast sensitivity, the lower-contrast objectswill also be visible.
考虑图1-3(P5)中所表示的情形。
圆形物体的大小相同,但充有不同浓度的碘对比度媒质。也就是说,它们具有不同级别的物体对比度。当成像系统具有相对低的对比度敏感性时,在图像中将仅可以看见充有高浓度的碘(即高目标对比度)的物体。如果该成像系统具有高对比度敏感性,则将同时也可以看见低对比度目标。
We emphasizethat contrast
sensitivity is a characteristic of the imaging method andthe variables of the particular imaging system.It is the characteristic that relates to the system's ability to translate physical object contrast into image contrast. The contrast transfer characteristic of an imaging systemcan be considered from two perspectives.
我们强调,对比度敏感性是成
像方法的一种特征和特定成像系统的变量。它是描述系统将物理目标对比度翻译成图像对比度的能力的特征。一个成像系统的对比度传递能力可以从两方面考虑。
From the perspective of adequate image contrast for object visibility, an increase in system contrast sensitivity causes lower-contrast objects to become visible. However, if we consider an object with a fixed degree of physical contrast (ie, a fixed concentration of contrast medium), then increasing contrast sensitivity will increase image contrast.
从为了目标的能见度而要求有足够
的图像对比度的方面考虑,系统对比度敏感性增加导致低对比度目标可以看得见。然而,如果我们考虑一个具有固定的物理对比度程度(即:固定浓度的对比度媒质)的目标,则增加对比度敏感性将增加图像对比度。
It is difficult to compare the contrast sensitivity of various imaging methods because many are based on different tissue characteristics.However, certain methods do have higher contrast sensitivity than others. For example, computed tomography (CT) generally has a higher contrast sensitivity than Conventional radiography. This is
demonstrated by the ability of CT to image soft tissue objects(masses) that cannot be imaged with radiography. The specific factors that determine the contrast sensitivity of each imaging method are considered in later chapters.
比较不同成像方法的对比度敏感性
是困难的,因为许多成像方法是以不同的组织特性为基础的。然而,某些方法确实有比其他方法高的对比度敏感性。例如,CT一般来讲比传统的放射摄影的对比度灵敏度高。这已经被CT对软组织物体(质量)成像的能力所证实,而放射摄影不能软组织物体成像。确定每一种成像方法的对比度敏感性的特殊因素将在后面的章节中考虑。
Consider Figure 1-4. Here is a series of objects with different degrees of
physical contrast. They could be vessels filled with different concentrations of contrast medium. The highest
concentration (and contrast) is at the bottom.
考虑图1-4(P5)。这是一系列
具有不同程度的物理对比度的物体。它们是以不同浓度的对比度媒质灌充过的管子。最高浓度(对比度)的管子是在底部。
Nowimagineacurtaincomingdownfromthetopandcoveringsomeoftheobjectssothattheyarenolongervisible.Contrastsensitivityisthecharacteristicoftheimagingsystemthatraisesandlowersthecurtain.Increasingsensitivityraisesthecurtainandallowsustoseemoreobjectsinthebody.Asystemwithlowcontrastsensitivityallowsustovisualizeonlyobjectswithrelativelyhighinherentphysicalcontrast.
现在想象有一个窗帘从顶上下垂下来,
并且遮盖了一些管子,以至于它们不再被看见。对比度敏感性是升高和降低窗帘似的成像系统的特征。增加敏感性则类似于升高窗帘,以让我们看清人体中的更多目标,而一个低对比度敏感性的系统仅能够让我们可以看见具有相对高的固有无力对比度的目标。
2.2.3 Blur and Visibility of DetailStructures and objects in the bodyvary not only in physical contrast but also in size.Objects range from large organs and bones to small structural features such as trabecula patterns(骨小梁图案) and small calcifications(小钙化).
细节的模糊和能见度
体内的结构和目标不仅物理对比度发生变化,而且大小也发生变化。目标变化的范围从大器官和骨骼到小的结构特征例如骨小梁的图案和小钙化点等。
Itisthesmallanatomicalfeaturesthatadddetailtoamedicalimage.Eachimagingmethodhasalimitastothesmallestobjectthatcanbeimagedandthusonvisibilityofdetail.Visibilityofdetailislimitedbecauseallimagingmethodsintroduceblurringintotheprocess,theprimaryeffectofimagebluristoreducethecontrastandvisibilityofsmallobjectsordetail.
它是添加细节到医学图像的小解剖特征。
每一成像方法都有关于可能被成像的最小目标的限制,因而细节的能见度受到限制。因为所有的成像方法都将模糊引入成像过程,故细节的能见度受到限制。图像模糊的主要影响是降低小目标或细节的对比度和能见度。
ConsiderFigure1-5,whichrepresentsthevariousobjectsinthebodyintermsofbothphysicalcontrastandsize.Aswesaid,theboundarybetweenvisibleandinvisibleobjectsisdeterminedbythecontrastsensitivityoftheimagingsystem.
考虑图1-5,它根据物理对比
度和大小表达了人体内不同的目标。正如我们所言,看得见和看不见的目标之间的界限由成像系统的对比度敏感性所确定。
Wenowextendtheideaofourcurtaintoincludetheeffectofblur.Ithaslittleeffectonthevisibilityoflargeobjectsbutitreducesthecontrastandvisibilityofsmallobjects.Whenblurispresent,anditalwaysis,ourcurtainofinvisibilitycoverssmallobjectsandimagedetail.BlurandvisibilityofdetailarediscussedinmoredepthinChapter18.
现在,我们将我们的窗帘主意引
申以包含模糊的影响。它对大目标的可视性几乎没有影响,但它降低了小目标的对比度和可视性。当模糊存在时-它总是存在的,我们的可视性窗帘遮住了小目标和图像的细节。细节的模糊和可视性在第十八章将做更加深入地讨论。
Theamountofblurinanimagecanbequantifiedinunitsoflength.Thisvaluerepresentsthewidthoftheblurredimageofasmallobject.Figure1-6comparestheapproximateblurvaluesformedicalimagingmethods.Asageneralrule,thesmallestobjectordetailthatcanbeimagedhasapproximatelythesamedimensionsasthoseoftheimageblur.一幅图像中的模糊的量可以用单
位长度来量化。这个值表示一个小目标的模糊过的图像的宽度。图1-6(P7)比较医学成像方法的大致模糊值。依照一般规则,能够被成像的细节或小目标大致与图像模糊的尺度相同。
设一成像系统可以看清楚某一尺寸的目标。若目标刚好小于这个尺寸,就变模糊,则恰好能看清的目标的尺寸就是最小模糊,最小模糊所对应的尺寸即为最大清晰度尺寸。
2.2.4 Noise
Anothercharacteristicofallmedicalimagesisimagenoise.Imagenoise,some-timesreferredtoasimagemottle,givesanimageatexturedorgrainyappearance.ThesourceandamountofimagenoisedependontheimagingmethodandarediscussedinmoredetailinChapter21.Wenowbrieflyconsidertheeffectofimagenoiseonvisibility.
噪声
所有的医学图像的另一特征是图像噪声。图像噪声(有时叫做图像斑点)给予一幅图像纹理状或粒状外观。图像噪声的源和量取决于成像方法,它将在第21章(第八讲)中比较详细的讨论。我们现在简单地讨论图像噪声对能见度的影响。
InFigure1-7wefindourfamiliararrayofbodyobjectsarrangedaccordingtophysicalcontrastandsize.Wenowaddathirdfactor,noise,whichwillaffecttheboundarybetweenvisibleandinvisibleobjects.Thegeneraleffectofincreasingimagenoiseistolowerthecurtainandreduceobjectvisibility.Inmostmedicalimagingsituationstheeffectofnoiseismostsignificantonthelow-contrastobjectsthatarealreadyclosetothevisibilitythreshold.
在图1-7中,我们可以发现我们所熟
悉的根据物理对比度和大小安排的人体目标阵列。现在,我们添加第三个因素:噪声。噪声将影响看得见和看不见的目标之间的界限。增加图像的噪声的一般影响是将窗帘降低并减少目标的可视性。在绝大多数医学成像情形下,噪声对接近于可视性阈值的低对比度目标的影响是最显著的。
2.2.5 Artifacts
We have seen that several characteristics of an imaging method (contrast sensitivity, blur, and noise) cause certain body objects to be invisible. Another problem is that most imaging methods can create image features that do not
represent a body structure or object.These are image artifacts.In many situations an artifact does not significantly affect object visibility and diagnostic accuracy. But artifacts can obscure(使不明显)a part of an image or may be interpreted as an anatomical feature. A variety of factors associated with each imaging method can cause image artifacts.
伪影伪迹
我们已经看到一种成像方法的几个特征(对比度敏感性,模糊和噪声)导致人体目标看不见。另一问题是,大多数成像方法可能创建出不代表人体结构或目标的图像特征。这些使图像伪迹(伪影)。在许多情况下,伪迹对目标的可视性和诊断的准确性的影响不显著,但是,危机可能遮挡住一幅图像的一部分,或可能被解释为解剖特征。与每一成像方法相关联的各种因素都可能引起图像伪迹。
2.2.6 Distortion
Amedicalimageshouldnotonlymakeinternalbodyobjectsvisible,butshouldgiveanaccurateimpressionoftheirsize,shape,andrelativepositions.Animagingprocedurecan,however,introducedistortionofthesethreefactors.
失真
一幅医学图像应该不仅能够使人体内部目标变得可见,而且还应该给出它们之间的大小、形状和相对位置的准确印象。然而,一个成像过程可能引入这三个因素的失真。
2.2.7 Compromises
Itwouldbelogicaltoraisethequestionastowhywedonotadjusteachimagingproceduretoyieldmaximumvisibility.Thereasonisthatinmanycasesthevariablesthataffectimagequalityalsoaffectfactorssuchasradiationexposuretothepatientandimagingtime.Ingeneral,animagingprocedureshouldbesetuptoproduceadequateimagequalityandvisibilitywithoutexcessivepatientexposureorimagingtime.
折衷
提出我们为什么不调整每一成像过程以产生最大能见度这个问题是符合逻辑的。理由是在许多情况下,影响图像质量的变量同时也影响对病人的辐射曝光量和成像时间这样的因素。一般来讲,一个成像过程应该设置为产生足够的图像质量和可视性而不超过病人的曝光量和成像时间。
In many situations, if a variable is changed to improve one
characteristic of image quality, such as noise, it often adversely affects another characteristic, such as blur and visibility of detail.Therefore an imaging procedure must be selected according to the specific requirements of the clinical examination.
在许多场合下,如果改变一个变
量以改善图像质量的一个特征,例如噪声,则通常反过来影响另外一个特征,例如模糊和细节的可视性。因而,必须根据临床检查的特殊要求来选择一个成像过程。
2.3. Tissue Characteristics and Image Views
Acombinationoftwofactorsmakeseachimagingmethodunique.Thesearethetissuecharacteristicsthatarevisibleintheimageandtheviewingperspective.
Thespecifictissuecharacteristicsthatproducethevariousshadesofgrayandimagecontrastvaryamongthevariousmodalitiesandmethods.
组织特征和图像观察
两个因素的组合使得每一成
像方法独一无二。它们是在图像和观察透视图中看得见的组织特征。
产生不同图像对比度和灰度阴影的特定组织特征在不同模式和方法中改变。
Aradiologistusesanimagetosearchforsignsofapathologicconditionorinjuryinthebody.Signscanbeobservedonlyiftheconditionproducesaphysicalchangeintheassociatedtissue.Manypathologicconditionsproduceachangeinaphysicalcharacteristicthatcanbeimagedbyonemethodbutnotanother.
一位放射学家利用一幅图像去搜索人体
中的病理状态或损伤的标志。仅当病理状态在相关联的组织中产生物理上的改变时,才有可能观察到该标志。许多病理状态产生能够被一种方法成像而不能被另外一种方法成像的物理特征的变化。
Imaging methods create images that show the body from one of two perspectives, through either projection or tomographic imaging.There are advantages and disadvantages to each.
成像方法创建以两种视图之一
显示人体的图像:投影图像或断层扫描图像。它们各有优缺点。
In projection imaging (radiography and fluoroscopy),images are formed by projecting an x-ray beam through the patient's body and casting shadows onto an appropriate receptor that converts the invisible x-ray image into a
visible light image.
在投影成像中(放射摄影术和荧光检查
术)中,将X 线束通过病人人体投影,并将阴影投射到适当的接收器上,在接收器中,看不见的X 线图像被转换为看得见的可见光,形成图像。
Thegammacamerarecordsa
projectionimagethatrepresentsthedistributionofradioactivematerialinthebody.Theprimaryadvantageofthistypeofimageisthatalargevolumeofthepatient'sbodycanbeviewedwithoneimage.Adisadvantageisthatstructuresandobjectsareoftensuperimposedsothattheimageofonemightinterferewiththevisibilityofanother.Projectionimagingproducesspatialdistortionthatisgenerallynotamajorprobleminmostclinicalapplications.
Gamma(γ)照相机记录代表人体
中放射物质的分布的投影图像。这种类型的图像的主要优点是用一幅图像可以观察到病人体内的一个大容积,缺点是结构和目标通常重叠以至于图像的一处可能干预另一处的可视性。投影图像产生的空间失真在大多数临床应用中一般不是主要问题。
Tomographic imaging,ie,
conventional tomography, computed tomography (CT), sonography, single photon emission tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), and MRI,
produces images of selected planes or slices of tissue in the patient's body. The general advantage of a
tomographic image is the increased visibility of objects within the imaged plane.
断层图像,即常规断层检查术,计算机
断层扫描术(CT),超声检查术,单光子发射断层扫描术(SPEDT),正电子发射断层扫描术(PET)和MRI产生病人人体中选定的组织平面或层面图像。断层图像的一般优点是成像平面中的目标的可视性增加。
Onefactorthatcontributestothisistheabsenceofoverlyingobjects.Themajordisadvantageisthatonlyasmallsliceofapatient'sbodycanbevisualizedwithoneimage.Therefore,mosttomographicproceduresusuallyrequiremanyimagestosurveyanentireorgansystemorbodycavity.
对于这一优点做出奉献的一个因
素是重叠物体被排除,而主要缺点是一幅图像仅能够可视化人体的一个小层面。因此,大多数断层过程需要许多图像来观察一个整体器官系统或者体腔。
2.4. Image Viewing Conditions
Our ability to see a specific object or feature in an image depends on the conditions under which we view the image.We must deal with the effects of viewing conditions in many activitiesin addition to the professional
interpretation of medical images.
图像观察条件
我们观察一幅图像中的一个特定目标或特征的能力取决于我们观察该图像所处的条件。除了专业的医学图像解释之外,我们必须处理在许多活动中观察条件的影响。
Dim candlelight enhances the pleasure
of a fine dinner but often makes it difficult to read the menu. The glare of an oncoming automobile headlight reduces our ability to see objects in the road and also produces discomfort and stress.
柔和的烛光增添了精美晚餐的情
趣,但是,一般来讲,又使得阅读菜单困难。对面行驶的汽车的前灯的眩光降低了我们观察道路上物体的能力,同时也引起不舒服和紧张。
Wequicklylearnthatthereisanoptimumviewingdistance(最佳视距)fortelevisionsets,newspapers,etc.Asmallobjectdroppedontothesmoothsurfaceofthediningtableiseasiertoseethananobjectdroppedontoatexturedcarpet(花式地毯)orsandybeach(沙质海滩).Withtheseexperiencesinmind,letusconsiderthefactorsassociatedwithimageviewingconditionsandhowtheyaffectourabilitytovisualizebodystructures.
我们很快就知道看电视和报纸的
最佳距离。一个掉在平滑餐桌表面上的小物体必落在条纹状或沙滩上的物体更容易被发现。利用头脑里的这些经验,让我们考虑与图像观看条件相关联的因素以及这些因素是如何影响我们可视化人体结构的能力的。
Figure1-8showstheprimaryfactorsthataffectourabilitytoseeordetectanobjectinanimage.Wewillassumeacircularobjectlocatedwithinalargerbackgroundarea.Theabilityofanobservertodetecttheobjectdependsonacombinationoffactorsincluding1)objectcontrastandsize,2)background,brightness(luminance)andstructure(texture),3)glareproducedbyotherlightsources,4)distancebetweentheimageandtheobserver,and5)thetimeavailabletosearchfortheobject.
图1-8表示影响我们观察或检测一幅图像
中的目标的能力的主要因素。我们假设一个位于大背景区域之中的圆形目标。一位观察着监测该目标的能力取决于目标的对比度和大小、背景、亮度(照度)和结构(纹理)、由其它光源产生的眩光、图像和观察者之间的距离以及搜索该目标可以利用的时间等因素的综合。
Figure1-9isanimageofthearrayofobjectsweusedtodemonstratetheeffectsofimagequalityfactors.Wenowuseittodemonstratehowthefactorsassociatedwiththeviewingprocessaffectourabilitytoseetheobjects.Youcanusethisactualimagetotestthefactorsdiscussedbelow.
图1-9是一幅用来证实图像质量因素的影
响的目标的阵列的图像。我们现在利用它来演示与观察过程相关联的因素是如何影响我们观察这些目标的能力的。你可以利用这些实际图像测试下面讨论的因素。
2.4.1 Object Contrast
Theabilitytoseeordetectanobjectisheavilyinfluencedbythecontrastbetweentheobjectanditsbackground.Formostviewingtasksthereisnotaspecificthresholdcontrast(没有具体的阈值对比度)atwhichtheobjectsuddenlybecomesvisible.Instead,theaccuracyofseeingordetectingaspecificobjectincreaseswithcontrast.
目标对比度,客观对比度,客体对比度观察或者检测一个目标的能力严重地受
目标和它的背景之间的对比度的影响。对于多数人物来讲,没有目标突然变得可以被看见的特殊的阈值对比度,而观察或检测一个特定目标的确定性随着对比度的增加而增加。
Thecontrastsensitivityofthehumanviewerchangeswithviewingconditions.Whenviewercontrastsensitivityislow,anobjectmusthavearelativelyhighcontrasttobevisible.Thedegreeofcontrastrequireddependsonconditionsthatalterthecontrastsensitivityoftheobserver:backgroundbrightness,objectsize,viewingdistance,glare,andbackgroundstructure.
人类观察者的对比度敏感性随着观察条
件的改变而改变。当观察者的对比度敏感性比较差时,该目标必须有一个相对高的可看得见的对比度。需要的对比度程度取决于修改观察者的对比度敏感性的条件:背景亮度,目标大小,观察距离,眩光和背景结构。
2.4.2 Background Brightness
The human eye can function over a large range of light levels or
brightness,but vision is not equally sensitive at all brightness levels. The ability to detect objects generally increases with increasing
background brightness or image illumination.
背景亮度
人眼可以在大范围的可见光数量级或亮度活动,但是在整个亮度范围内,视觉的灵敏度是不相等的。检查目标的能力通常随着背景亮度或图像照度的增加而增加。
Tobedetectedinareasoflowbrightness,anobjectmustbelargeandhavearelativelyhighlevelofcontrastwithrespecttoitsbackground.ThiscanbedemonstratedwiththeimageinFigure1-9.Viewthisimagewithdifferentlevelsofillumination.Youwillnoticethatunderlowilluminationyoucannotseeallofthesmallandlow-contrastobjects.Ahigherlevelofobjectcontrastisrequiredforvisibility.
为了在低亮度区域中检测,目标必须足
够大,并且相对于其背景具有相对高的对比度量级。这可以由图1-9中的图像演示。以不同量级的照度观看这幅图像。你将注意到在低照度下,你不能够看到所有的小而低对比度的目标。为了可视性,要求比较高的目标对比度量级。
Viewbox(观片箱)luminance(brightness)canhaveasignificanteffectonthevisibilityofobjectswithinanimage.Forgeneralimageviewing,viewboxesshouldhavealuminanceofatleast1,500nits(尼特).Abrighterviewboxofatleast3,500nitsisrecommendedformammography.AnitisaunitofbrightnessandisdescribedinmoredetailinChapter3.
观片箱亮度(亮度)可能对一幅图像中
的目标的可视性有明显的影响。对于一般图像观察,观片箱应该具有至少1,500尼特的流明。对于乳腺照片,推荐使用至少3,500尼特的比较亮的观片箱。尼特是亮度的单,在第三章中有比较详细的描述。
2.4.3 Object Size
Therelationshipbetweenthedegreeofcontrastrequiredfordetectabilityandforbackgroundbrightnessisinfluencedbythesizeoftheobject.Smallobjectsrequireeitherahigherlevelofcontrastorincreasedbackgroundbrightnesstobedetected.
目标大小
可检测性和背景亮度所要求的对比
度的程度之间的关系受目标大小的影响。小目标不是要求比较高的对比度水平,就是要求被检测的背景亮度增加。
Thedetectabilityofanobjectismorecloselyrelatedtotheangleitformsinthevisualfield.Theangleistheratioofobjectdiametertothedistancebetweenimageandobserver.Inprinciple,asmallobjectwillhavethesamedetectabilityatcloserangeasalargerobjectviewedatagreaterdistance.大体上,小目标在比较近
的距离观察与大目标在比较远的距离观察将具有相同的可检测性。
一个目标的可检测性更密切地
与它在视野中形成的角度相关。该角度是目标直径与图像和观察者之间的距离的比。大体上,小目标在比较近的距离观察与大目标在比较远的距离观察将具有相同的可检测性。
2.4.4 Viewing Distance
Therelationshipbetweenvisibilityandviewingdistanceisaffectedbyseveralfactors.Whentheviewingdistanceisreduced,anobjectcreatesalargerangleandisgenerallyeasiertosee.However,theeyedoesnotfocusandexhibitmaximumcontrastsensitivityatcloserange.Therefore,therelationshipbetweendetectabilityandviewingdistancegenerallypeaksatadistanceofapproximately2ft.
观察距离
能见度与观察距离之间的关系受几个因素的影响。当观察距离减小的时候,目标创立了一个比较大的角度,它通常比较容易观察。然而,眼睛不聚焦,在近距离展现出最大对比灵敏度。因此,可检测性和观察距离之间的关系通常集中在约2英尺的距离。
2.4.5 Glare
Glareisproducedbybrightareasorlightsourcesinthefieldofviewandhasseveralundesirableeffects.Oneeffectistoreducetheperceivedcontrast(感知对比度)oftheobjectsviewed.Whenlightfromtheglare-producingsourceenterstheeye,someofitisscatteredoverotherareaswithinthevisualfield.Thisinturnreducescontrastsensitivity.Theextenttowhichitisreduceddependsonthebrightnessandsizeoftheglaresourceanditsproximitytotheobjectviewed.
眩光
眩光由视野中的光源或明亮区域产生。
一种影响是降低观察的目标的觉察到的对比度。当来自眩光产生源的光线进入眼睛时,它中间的一些在该视野中的整个其它区域散射开来。这反过来减小对比度灵敏度。它被减小的程度取决于眩光源的大小和亮度以及到观察的目标的接近性。
Glareisamajorproblemwhensomeofthebrightviewboxareaisnotcoveredbythefilm.Visibilityisimprovedbymaskingwhenviewingsmallfilmsasinmammography.
当观片箱的某些明亮区域
没有被胶片遮住的时候,眩光就是一个主要问题了。当观察像乳腺照片那样的小胶片时,利用遮掩法可改善能见度。
2.4.6 Background Structure
Thestructureortextureofanobject'sbackgroundhasasignificanteffectonitsvisibility.Asmoothbackgroundproducesmaximumvisibility;visibilityoflowcontrastobjectsisoftenreducedbecauseofthetextureofsurroundingtissuesorimagenoise.
背景结构
一个目标的背景的结构和纹理对其能见度有明显的影响。一个平滑的背景产生最大的能见度,因为周围组织或图像噪声的纹理,低对比度目标的能见度通常降低。
2.5 Observer Performance
Inmanysituations,thepresenceofaspecificobjectorsignisnotobviousbutrequiresestablishmentbyatrainedobserver.Thecriteriausedtoestablishthepresenceofaspecificsignoftenvaryamongobservers.Individualobserversalsousedifferentcriteria,ofteninfluencedbytheclinicalsignificanceofaspecificobservation.
观察者的特性
在许多情形下,一个特殊目标或标志的存在不是明显的,但要求由一位受过训练的观察者建立。用来建立一个特殊标志的存在的准则通常在观察者们中变化。个别观察者同时使用不同的准则,通常受特定观察的临床意义的影响。
Let us assume we have a relatively large number of cases to be examined by mean of a medical imaging procedure, and that a specific pathologic conditions present in some and absent in others. The ideal situation would be if the condition were diagnosed as positive when present and negative when absent.In actual practice, this is usually not achieved.A more realistic situation is represented in Figure1-10.
让我们假设我们有相当大量的病例借助于医学成像过程检查,在这些病例中,一些有一种特定的病理状态存在,而另外一些中则不存在。理想情形将是,当病理状态存在时,状态被诊断为阳性,而不存在时,诊断为阴性。在实际实践中,通常达不到理想情形。一种更现实的情形在图1-10中表达。
Hereweseethatafractionofthepathologicalconditionswerediagnosedaspositive.Thisfraction(orpercentage)representsthesensitivityofthespecificdiagnosticprocedure.Wealsoseethattheconditionwasnotalwaysdiagnosedasnegativewhenabsent.Thepercentageofthesecasesdiagnosedasnegativerepresentsthespecificity(特异性)oftheprocedure.
这里,我们看到,病理状态的
一部分被诊断为阳性。这部分(或百分数)描绘了该特定诊断过程的灵敏度。我们还看到当病理状态不存在的时候,该状态不总是诊断为阴性。这些被诊断为阴性的病例的百分数描绘该过程的特异性。
Thediagnosesderivedfromtheimagingproceduredividethecasesintofourcategories(将情形划分为四个范畴),asshown.inFigure1-11:truepositives,truenegatives,falsepositives,andfalsenegatives.Intheidealsituation,thereareonlytruepositivesandtruenegatives.Thiswouldbeadiagnosticprocesswith100%accuracy.
从该成像过程衍生的诊断将
这些病例划分为四个范畴如图1-11所示:真阳性,真阴性,假阳性和假阴性。在理想的情形下,仅有真阳性和真阴性,这将是具有100%准确性的诊断过程。
Falsenegativesandfalsepositivesoccurforanumberofreasons,includinginherentlimitationsofaspecificimagingmethod,selectionofinappropriateimagingfactors,poorviewingconditions,andtheperformanceoftheobserver(radiologist).
在一定的原因下出现假阴性和假阳性,
它们包括一种特定成像方法的固有局限性,不适当的成像因素的选择,低劣的观察条件和观察者(放射学家)的特性等。
Ingeneral,ifanobserverisaggressive(积极主动地,过分自信的,大胆的和积极进取的)intryingtoincreasethenumberoftruepositives(sensitivity),thenumberoffalsenegatives(decreasedspecificity)alsoincreases.Therelationshipbetweensensitivityandspecificityforaspecificdiagnostictest(includingobserverperformance)canbedescribedbyagraph(showninFigure1-12)knownasareceiveroperatingcharacteristic(ROC)curve.
一般来讲,如果一位观察者在试图增加
真阳性(灵敏度)的数目中是过分自信的(aggressive:大胆的和积极进取的),则假阴性(减少的特异性)的数目同样也增加。特定诊断测验(包括观察者的特性)的灵敏度和特异性之间的关系可以用叫做ROC曲线的图表(见图1-12)描述。
Theidealdiagnostictestproduces100%sensitivityand100%specificityasshown.Ifadiagnosticprocedurehasnopredictivevalue(预测值),andthediagnosisisobtainedbyarandomselectionprocess,therelationshipbetweensensitivityandspecificityislinearasshown.Theobserverdeterminestheactualoperatingpointalongthisline.Sincethisparticulardiagnosticprocedureisprovidingnousefulinformation,anattempttoincreasethesensitivitybycallingagreaternumberofpositiveswillproduceaproportionatedecreaseinthespecificity.
理想的诊断测验产生100%的灵敏度
和100%的特异性如图所示。如果一个诊断过程没有预定值,而且该诊断由随机选择过程所获得,则灵敏度和特异性之间的关系是线性的(如图所示)。该观察者确定沿着这条直线的实际工作点。因为这种特定诊断过程没有提供有用的信息,引入大量阳性以增加灵敏度的企图将产生特异性成比例减少。
Therelationshipbetweensensitivityandspecificityformostmedicalimagingproceduresisbetweentheidealandnopredictivevalue.TheROCcurveshowninFigure1-13istypical.Thecharacteristicsoftheimagingmethodandthequalityoftheresultingimagedeterminetheshapeofthecurveandtherelationshipbetweensensitivityandspecificityforaspecificpathologicalcondition.Thecriteriausedbytheobservertomakethediagnosisdeterminethepointonthecurvethatproducestheactualsensitivityandspecificityvalues.
大多数医疗成像过程的灵敏度和特
异性之间的关系处于理想和无预定值之间。图1-13中显示的ROC曲线是典型的。成像方法的特征和综合图像的质量为特定病理状态确定了该曲线的形状和灵敏度和特异性之间的关系。被观察者用来产生诊断的准则确定曲线上的点,该点产生实际灵敏度和特异性值。
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