名词解释
Predication 答案:Predication refers to the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence; it consists of ‗argument(s)‘ and ‗predicate‘. An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
Selectional restrictions
答案:Selectional restrictions refer to the constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.
Naming theory 答案:The naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, according to which, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for, and words are just names or labels for things. Conceptualism
答案:Conceptualism holds the view that relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mind.
Behaviorism
答案:Behaviorism holds the view that the meaning of a language form is the ‗situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.‘ Contextualism
答案:Contextualism holds the view that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context– elements closely linked with language behaviour.
Grammaticality 答案:Grammaticality refers to the grammatical meaning of a linguistic unit (such as ‗a sentence‘), which is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. 问答题
What is componential analysis?
答案:It is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning into semantic features, using such labels as ‗+HUMAN‘, ‗+ADULT‘, ‗+ANIMATE‘, ‗+MALE‘, and so on. Componential analysis makes it possible to show how the words analyzed are related in meaning. What is predication analysis?
答案:It is a way proposed by the British linguist G. Leech to analyze sentence meaning, by which the basic unit of a sentence called predication consists of argument(s) and predicate, e.g. The predication of ―Tom is smoking.‖ is: TOM (SMOKE). What is the difference between sense and reference? 答案:The difference between sense and reference is that sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, whereas reference deals with what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. What is sense?
答案:Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in, like the definition of ‗dog‘ as ‗a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form‘. What is reference?
答案:Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. For instance, if we say ‗The dog is barking‘, we must be talking about a certain dog in the situation; here, ‗dog‘ refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer. This is the reference of the word ‗dog‘ in this particular situation.
1
综合分析题
Analyze Speaker A's presupposition in the following dialogue and its possible effect on Speaker B: A: (The first time to invite B to see a film) Hello, Mary. This is John speaking. B: Hi, John.
A: Which film do you would like to see with me tonight, Titanic, or Love Me Again?
B: Well, ...
答案:Speaker A's presupposition in the dialogue is Mary has promised to see a film with John that evening. He made this supposition probably because he was afraid of Mary's refusal to go to see the movie with him. Therefore, he asked Mary to make a choice out of two films instead. The possible effect is that if Mary was careless, or she liked him very much, or she was in love with him, then she might accept his assumption and went with him to enjoy the film. If she was very careful, or she did not like him, then the presupposition might have little effect on her, and she might well decline his invitation.
Chapter6
名词解释 Constatives
答案:Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and thus verifiable (‗The dress is red‘).
Expressives
答案:Expressives are the speaker‘s attempts to express his feelings or attitude towards an existing state, e.g. ‗I‘m sorry for being late.‘, ‗It‘s very kind of you to give me advice.‘ Performatives
答案:Performatives are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable (‗I name this ship Elizabeth‘). Directives
答案:Directives are the speaker‘s attempts to get the hearer to do something, e.g. ‗Turn on the light!‘, ‗You‘d better read the book.‘, ‗Your money or your life!‘ Illocutionary act
答案:Illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker‘s intention, the act performed in saying something.
Declarations
答案:Declarations are the speaker‘s attempts to bring about immediate changes by saying (declaring) something, e.g. ‗I now declare the meeting open.‘, ‗I fire you!‘ Utterance meaning
答案:Utterance meaning is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or in a context.
Locutionary act
答案:Locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses, the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
Sentence meaning
答案:Sentence meaning is the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.
Commissives
答案:Commissives are the speaker‘s attempts to commit the speaker himself to some future course of action, e.g. ‗I promise to come.‘, ‗I will call you tomorrow morning without fail.‘ Representatives
答案:Representatives are the speaker‘s attempts to state or describe, say what the speaker believes to be true, e.g. ‗I have never been to England before.‘, ‗The man is a rich man.‘ perlocutionary act 答案:Perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something, the consequence of, or the change brought
2
about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. 问答题
what is the relationship between pragmatics and semantics? 答案:The relation between pragmatics and semantics is that both are linguistic studies of meaning. But they differ in that semantics traditionally studies meanings of words, meanings of sentences in isolation from language use, whereas pragmatics studies meanings in the context of language use.
What is conversational implicature? 答案:Conversational implicature is a nonconventional implicature based on an addressee‘s assumption that the speaker is following the conversational maxims or at least the cooperative principle. It occurs when any of the four maxims is violated. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning different from each other?
答案:Sentence meaning is the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Whereas utterance meaning is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or in a context. So the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning is that the former is abstract and decontextualized, while the latter is concrete and context-dependent.
How does a sentence differ from an utterance? 答案:A sentence and an utterance differ in that a sentence is a grammatical and self-contained unit in isolation from context, whereas utterance is something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose. What is context?
答案:Context is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer (e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other). 综合分析题
1. Analyze the following dialogue by applying the Cooperative Principle: A: Where is John?
B: He must be somewhere in the city. 答案:The Cooperative Principle refers to the general principle that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, or it would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. It comprises four maxims: of quantity, quality, relation, and manner. The violation of any of these maxims results in what Grice terms conversational implicature. In the dialogue given, Speaker B violates the maxim of quality. One possible interpretation is that he does not want to let A know about John. 2. Analyze the following dialogue by applying the speech act theory:
Father said to Son: You got up late again today.
答案:According to Austins‘ new model of speech acts, a speaking might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
In this example, Father‘s words might mean his performing three acts at the same time: Locutionary act: uttering of the sentence ―You got up late again today ‖.
Illocutionary act: asking Son to change his bad habit of getting up late. Perlocutionary act: Son‘s actual act of changing, or sticking to, his bad habit of getting up late in the coming days. 3. Analyze the following dialogue by applying the Cooperative Principle: A: Where is John?
B: In the t-o-i-l-e-t. 答案:The Cooperative Principle refers to the general principle that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, or it would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. It goes as follows: Make your conversational
3
contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. It comprises four maxims: of quantity, quality, relation, and manner. The violation of any of these maxims results in what Grice terms conversational implicature. In the dialogue given, Speaker B violates the maxim of manner. One possible interpretation is that he does not want to speak directly because the word toilet will invite unpleasant association. 4.Analyze the following dialogue by applying the Cooperative Principle: A: Where is John?
B: It‘s going to rain. 答案:The Cooperative Principle refers to the general principle that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, or it would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. It comprises four maxims: of quantity, quality, relation, and manner. The violation of any of these maxims results in what Grice terms conversational implicature. In the dialogue given, Speaker B violates the maxim of relation. One possible interpretation is that he wants to avoid the topic of ―John‖.
5. Analyze the following dialogue by applying the Cooperative Principle:
A: Where is John?
B: I don‘t know. Perhaps Kate knows. 答案:The Cooperative Principle refers to the general principle that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, or it would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. It comprises four maxims: of quantity, quality, relation, and manner. The violation of any of these maxims results in what Grice terms conversational implicature. In the dialogue given, Speaker B violates the maxim of quantity. One possible interpretation is that he is a kind man.
6. Analyze the following dialogue by applying the speech act theory: Student A said to his friend beside him: I have no money in my card for lunch today.
答案:According to Austins‘ new model of speech acts, a speaking might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
In this example, Student A‘s words might mean his performing three acts at the same time: Locutionary act: uttering of the sentence ―I have no money in my card for lunch today. ‖ Illocutionary act: Student A‘s asking his friend to lend him some money to have lunch. Perlocutionary act: Student A‘s friend‘s lending (or declining to lend) him some money.
Chapter 7
名词解释
Borrowing
答案:Borrowing refers to the use of words in a language from another language of a different culture, e.g. in English, bonus—Latin; dinner—French. Functional shift
答案:Functional shift refers to the phenomenon of words shifting from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e.g. shoulder (n.)—shoulder (v.). Acronym
答案:An acronym is a word derived from the initials of several words, e.g. IT—information technology; WTO—World Trade Organization.
Blending
答案:Blending refers to the formation of a word by combining parts of other words, e.g. smog—smoke + fog; motel—motor + hotel.
4
Back-formation
答案:Back-formation refers to the formation of a word by ‗subtracting‘ an affix thought to be part of the old word, e.g. edit—editor; beg—beggar. Clipping
答案:Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g. gym—gymnasium, mike—microphone. 问答题
1,What is widening of lexical meaning? 答案:The meaning of a word may change through time. The widening of lexical meaning is one kind of change in the meaning of a word. This refers to the case when the meaning of a word becomes broader, that word means everything it used to mean, and then more. Take the word ‗tail‘ for instance. It once referred to ‗the tail of a horse‘. But now it is used to mean ‗the tail of any animal‘.
What is narrowing of lexical meaning? 答案:This refers to the case that in the course of several generations, semantic change has narrowed the meaning of a word to what it is in Modern English. Take the word ‗girl‘ for instance. It once meant ‗young person of either sex‘ but now means ‗young people of female sex‘. 2,What are causes of language change?
答案:Language change can be attributed to a variety of factors. Some language changes may be easy to explain, but others may be difficult to account for.
For instance, it is clear to us that the rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words (such as ‗telecom‘, ‗fax‘). In addition, social and political changes and political needs have supplied the English vocabulary with a great quantity of new words and expressions (such as ‗hot line‘, ‗shuttle diplomacy‘). What is more, as more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles (such as ‗chairperson‘, ‗police officer‘) have been created. Furthermore, the way acquire the language also provides a basic cause of change. Still another source of change which can be regarded as ‗economy of memory‘ results in grammar simplification (such as ‗agendum—agenda/agendums‘). It is true that there is no single cause of language change. When we account for language change, we may find it quite a complicated phenomenon.
3,What are the recent trends of the English language? 答案:The recent trends of the English language include moving towards greater informality, the influence of American English, and the influence of science and technology.
Chapter 8
名词解释
Macro-sociolinguistics 答案:Macro-sociolinguistics refers to the study of society as a whole, and of how language functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations, i.e., a bird‘s-eye view of the languages used in society.
Bilingualism
答案:Bilingualism refers to the case in which two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.
Speech variety
答案:Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. It is also termed ‗language variety‘. Idiolect
答案:Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age
5
variations.
Register
答案:According to M.A. K. Halliday, register refers to the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation. Ethnic dialect
答案:Ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.
Speech community
答案:Speech community refers to the social group that is singled out for any special study. For general linguistics, it is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language. Regional dialect 答案:Regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.
Diglossia
答案:Diglossia refers to a sociolinguistic situation where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. Pidgin 答案:A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. Micro-sociolinguistics
答案:Micro-sociolinguistics refers to the study of society from the point of view of an individual member within it, or a worm‘s-eye view of language in use.
Linguistic repertoire
答案:Linguistic repertoire refers to the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual.
Creole 答案:A Creole is a pidgin which has become the primary language of a speech community and which is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language. Sociolect
答案:Sociolect refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. 问答题
1,What is standard dialect? 答案:Standard dialect is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions. It is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language users, but it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age. 2,What is culture?
答案:In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. In a narrow sense, it may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.
3,What are the three social variables of register? 答案:The three social variables of register are field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse. Field of discourse refers to what is going on: the area of operation of the language activity. It answers the questions of ‗why‘ and ‗about what‘ communication takes place. Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other. It answers the question of ‗to whom‘ the speaker
6
is communicating. Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with ‗how‘ communication is carried out. 名词解释
Linguistic relativity
答案:Linguistic relativity refers to the fact that different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and they think and speak differently.
Denotative meaning
答案:Denotative meaning is the meaning that can be found in a dictionary. Iconic meaning 答案:Iconic meaning refers to the meaning when a word invokes images to people. Connotative meaning
答案:Connotative meaning refers to the meaning triggered by a word through associations. Material culture
答案:Material culture is the concrete, substantial and observable aspect of the life of a people.
Spiritual culture 答案:Spiritual culture is mostly the abstract, ambiguous, and hidden aspect of the life of a people, or the products of mind (such as ideologies, beliefs, values and concepts of time and space). 问答题
1,What is Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis？
答案:According to Sapir and Whorf, language filters people‘s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This is termed Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. It comes in two versions, the strong and weak versions. The strong version holds that the language patterns determine people‘s thinking and behavior. The weak version holds that the language patterns influence people‘s thinking and behavior. 2,What is culture?
答案:In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. In a narrow sense, it may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc. 3,What are usually the differences between English and Chinese in response to compliments? 答案:The native English speakers tend to accept compliments more directly and frankly than the native Chinese speakers. The westerners usually express their ‗thanks‘ positively to those who offer compliments, whereas the Chinese often feel embarrassed when they hear compliments like ‗You speak excellent English‘, and show their modesty by saying something like ‗no, no‘. 名词解释 Language acquisition
答案:Language acquisition refers to the child‘s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.
Atypical development 答案:Atypical development refers to the abnormal language development in linguistics, which includes hearing impairment, mental retardation, autism, stuttering, aphasia, dyslexia, and dysgraphia. Aphasia
答案:Aphasia refers to the partial or total loss of language due to brain damage. Dyslexia
答案:Dyslexia refers to the disorders in reading which may be acquired or developmental. Mental retardation
7
答案:Mental retardation refers to the language impairment of mental ability that may cause a delayed language acquisition. Universal Grammar
答案:Universal Grammar refers to the innate endowment to discover language‘s structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.
Dysgraphia
答案:Dysgraphia refers to the disorders in writing which may be acquired or developmental.
问答题
1,What is the innatist view of language acquisition? 答案:The innatist view of language acquisition is that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking. This innate ability is first referred to as Language Acquisition Device (LAD), and later as Universal Grammar (UG). Chomsky holds that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own language makes use of these principles and the variations on those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning.
2,What is the interactionist view of language acquisition? 答案:The interactionist view of language acquisition is that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. 3,What is the Critical Period Hypothesis? 答案:The Critical Period Hypothesis refers to the specific and limited time period for language acquisition. It has two versions. The strong version suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure. The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. 4,What is the behaviourist view of language acquisition? 答案:The behaviourist view of language acquisition is that language is behavior and that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.
5,What is motherese?
答案:Motherese is a ―special‖ speech adults use in talking to little children with slow rate of speech, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures, frequent repetition, paraphrasing and limited vocabulary. It is also termed ‗caretaker talk‘ or child directed speech. 6,What is under-extension?
答案:Under-extension refers to the phenomenon of a child denying some fact due to his lack of adequate knowledge, e.g. a child may say that birds are not animals.
7,What is telegraphic speech? 答案:Telegraphic speech refers to content words which give us the information and which lack the function elements. 8,What is over-extension?
答案:Over-extension refers to the phenomenon of a child taking a property of an object and generalizing it inappropriately, e.g. ‗apple‘ for ‗all fruit‘ or ‗anything round‘. 名词解释
Interlingual errors 答案:Interlingual errors refer to errors mainly resulting from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal, etc.
Affect strategies
8
答案:Affect strategies are strategies that deal with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.
Cognitive strategies
答案:Cognitive strategies are strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis, and internalizing what has been learned.
Learning strategies
答案:Learning strategies are learners‘ conscious goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. Resultative motivation
答案:Resultative motivation refers to the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes. Contrastive analysis
答案:Contrastive analysis is a kind of analysis which compares features of the native language and target language (the forms and meanings) to spot the mismatches or differences so that people could predict learners‘ difficulty. Metacognitive strategies
答案:Metacognitive strategies are the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one‘s learning. Intrinsic motivation
答案:Intrinsic motivation refers to the drive that learners learn a second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning. Error analysis 答案:Error analysis refers to the analysis of learners‘ errors, which involves first independently or objectively, describing the learners‘ interlanguage, then a comparison of their version of the target language and the target language itself is followed to locate mismatches.
Interlanguage
答案:According to Selinker, interlanguage refers to an abstract system of learner‘s target language system. It has now been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones. Instrumental motivation
答案:Instrumental motivation occurs when people learn a foreign language for external goals such as passing exams, financial rewards or furthering a career, etc.
Language aptitude
答案:Language aptitude in second language acquisition refers to a natural ability for learning a second language.
Interference
答案:Interference is the negative or distorting effect that new learning can have on previous learning or that previous learning can have on new learning.
Intralingual errors
答案:Intralingual errors refer to errors mainly resulting from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language, which include learning strategies-based errors, communication strategies-based errors, induced errors, and some compound and ambiguous errors.
Integrative motivation
答案:Integrative motivation refers to the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture.
Fossilization
答案:Fossilization refers to a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. 问答题
1,What is overgeneralization?
答案:Overgeneralization is the use of previously available strategies in new situations, which results in mistakes, e.g. The girl is in a blue ski jacket.
9
The girl is dressed in a blue ski jacket.
* The girl is worn in a blue ski jacket. 2,What is cross-association?
答案:Cross-association refers to the internal interference, or the close association of the two similar linguistic forms which leads to confusion, e.g.*The apricot is too sour to eat it. [I can‘t eat it.]
3,What is the Input Hypothesis?
答案:According to Krashen, the only way learners can acquire language is by receiving comprehensible input, which is defined as ‗i+1‘, where ‗i‘ represents learners‘ current state of knowledge, and the next stage is an ‗i+1‘. That is, learners have to receive input that is just beyond their competence but not beyond their understanding. This is termed the Input Hypothesis. However, this hypothesis was later modified so that comprehensible input was a necessary but not sufficient condition for acquisition. Learners have to also have the right environment and circumstances to allow comprehensible input to work. A learner's affective filter has to be low; they have to be free of stress and motivated. 名词解释 Neurolinguistics 答案:Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language. Psycholinguistics 答案:Psycholinguistics is the study of language processing; it is concerned with the processes of language comprehension and production.
Top-down processing 答案:Top-down processing refers to the spontaneous and automatic interpretation of a sentence on the basis of whatever information is available before the analysis of all the phonemes in the sentence. Bottom-up processing
答案:Bottom-up processing is such an inductive analysis as to perform phonetic analysis, when one hears a sentence, to isolate phonemes and word boundaries, and to relate these to representations in the mental lexicon. 问答题
1,What is a garden path sentence? 答案:A garden path sentence is an awkward sentence that misleads the syntactic parser and takes it down the garden path to the wrong analysis, e.g. ―The horse raced past the barn fell.‖
2,What is minimal attachment strategy?
答案:Minimal attachment strategy is that we prefer attaching new items into the phrase marker being constructed using the fewest syntactic nodes consistent with the rules of the language, e.g. Ernie kissed Marcie and her sister … It could be either
Ernie kissed [Marcie and her sister]… (minimal attachment) or
[Ernie kissed Marcie] and [her sister …] 3,What is Spoonerism? 答案:Spoonerism is a kind of humorous slips of tongue, named after the Victorian cleric and teacher, W. A. Spooner, who was infamous for blundering through many lectures or sermons with humorous speech errors such as below: What he intended: You have wasted the whole term. What he said:
10
You have tasted the whole worm.
11
因篇幅问题不能全部显示，请点此查看更多更全内容