作文的标准
写作的一个重要标准就是要考查学生\"是否会用英语清楚而贴切地表达思想\"。而句子是表达一个完整独立思想的最小的语言单位。因此,合理的句子结构对表达思想至关重要,其好坏与否直接关系到一篇文章的成败。
写好句子的基本要素:
1.简洁性(Conciseness)
举世闻名的英国剧作家。诗人莎士比亚(William Shakespeare)有句名言:\"言以简洁为贵\"(Brevity is the soul of wit.)。所谓简洁,就是语言凝练概括,高度浓缩,简明扼要。用较少的语言表达尽可能丰富的内容,无冗长之弊,无拖沓之嫌,做到文约而事丰,言简而意赅,它充分体现了英语语言自身发展的要求。古今中外,作家们大都惜墨如金。中国著名作家鲁迅曾说过:\"竭力将可有可无的字。句。段删去,毫不可惜\"。美国作家海明威(Ernest Hemingway)的语言风格在西方文学中更是独树一帜。他的文笔含蓄简练,清新流畅,以善用小词。短句著称,人称\"电报式\"风格。
他曾经告诫自己儿子说:\"Never use more words than you have to—it detracts from the flow of actions.\"然而,有些学生在写作中却忽略了这一点。把本来可以很简洁的句子变成了冗长的词语堆砌,结果往往是佶屈聱牙,冗长费解。要写出语言优美。短小精悍的文章,就必须作到句子精短,用词简洁,使每个词在句中起到应有的作用。具体来说,在不影响准确。清晰表达的前提下,句子能简化的部分尽量简化,能省略的尽量省略,用精炼的语言表达丰富的思想,使人们要表达的深层语义明白流畅,一目了然,达到简明扼要。清澈晶莹的效果。
1)尽可能把从句变成单句或短语 ,把短语变成单词If you compare the two methods carefully,you will find the difference.
这个句子本来用一个简单句就足以表达清楚,却用了一个含条件状语从句的复合句,反而显得冗长累赘。下面这句就精炼多了:
Careful comparison of the two methods will show you the difference.
When I pushed the door open, I saw a group of young people.
此句可用现在分词短语代替时间状语从句,使文字更简短紧凑。干净利落ushing the door open,I saw a group of young people.
During the past forty years,the population of China has been rising at a rapid rate.
句中介词短语at a rapid rate根据其在句中的语法功能,完全可由单个副词rapidly取代,
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使句子文字简练。
2)避免不必要的重复,包括语义重复和用词重复。
She is attractive in appearance ,but she is rather a foolish person.
前半句属于语义重复。用了attractive(迷人的;有吸引力的),无须再用in appearance ;后半句属于用词重复,全句宜改为:
She is attractive, but rather foolish.
改写后行文依然能表达完整意义,给人\"含英咀华\"之感。
The workers and technicians in this factory have made a lot of new innovations.innovations(something newly introduced)已含有new 之义。汉语口语中有\"新发明\"这一说法。母语的负迁移(negative transfer)影响容易使人对等翻译英文,给人以叠床架屋之感。
I will go to the movies together with my brother.
\"与某人一起\"用\"with sb.\"就可以,而\"together with (as well as; in addition to)则意为\"和。加之或连同\"。例如:These new facts, together with the evidence you have already heard, prove the prisoner's innocence.(这些新的事实,连同你已听到的证据,证明此在押被告是无辜的。)
The final result of the match is 2:1 to our team.
句中final result搬用了汉语的说法,而没有注意到result 本身意为\"结果\结局\用了final无异于画蛇添足。
以上经过化简的句子,既保持了信息量大的优点,又避免了臃肿,达到以少胜多的效果。要避免句子的类似问题,一方面要了解英汉两种语言在语法,句型,词义等方面的异同,另一方面要用英语的思维和表达方式取代汉语,排除母语的负迁移干扰。
3)改写不必要的冗长句子结构和被动语态,对原句的结构做一些必要的调整。
It is necessary for students to fill out both registration forms.
Students must fill out both registration forms.
British was defeated by the United States in the war of 1812.
British lost the war of 1812 to the United States.
My short stay in the country gave me the greatest happiness that I have had
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over the entire period of my life.
My short stay in the country gave me the greatest happiness in my life.
2.多样性(Variety)
任何事情都不是绝对的。写作中如果一味追求短句,追求简洁,有时会弄巧成拙,适得其反。因为一篇文章如果都是千篇一律的简单句,势必导致割裂句(choppy sentence )过剩。文体松散,文章就会粗糙浅显。毫无生气。英语是世界上最富有表达力的语言之一。它的句型变化灵活多样,丰富多彩。同一思想内容可以用多种语言形式来表达。当然句型多样化决不可滥用,造成华而不实。只有在准确表达思想的基础上方可力求句型多样化,以求既有丰富的内涵,又有优美的文字。英语句子的多样性主要体现在以下两个方面:
1)句式变化的多样性
这是语言运用能力的一种表现,也是避免句子单调乏味最简单有效的办法。通过句子变换(transformation of sentence),运用不同结构,选用不同句式来表达相同的内容,使表意手段更为多样化,具有异曲同工之妙。
(1)既可以用主动式也可以用被动式,如:
We certainly should make great efforts.
Great efforts are certainly required.
(2)既可以用肯定式也可以用否定式,如:
The lesson will be firmly rooted in our minds.
We will never forget this lesson.(3)既可以是正常语序也可以是倒装语序,如:
One can't learn anything until he rids himself of complacency.
Only when one rids himself of complacency can he learn something.
(4)某些成分既可以放在句子前面也可以放在后面,还可以放在中间,如:
With a car, people can get around freely.
People can get around freely with a car.
People, with a car, can get around freely.
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(5)既可以用简单句(simple sentence)也可以用并列句(compound sentence) 或者复合句(complex sentence)
a.扩展为名词从句
One man's meat is another man's poison.
What is one man's meat is another man's poison.(从句作主语)
The manager is going to some place,but no one knows where.
No one knows where the manager is going.(从句作宾语)
b.扩展为形容词从句
Our present house suits us fine.
The house that we are now living in suits us fine.
Robert was not a man to tell a lie.
Robert was not a man who told a lie.
I placed the book on the table,and it is still there.
The book that I placed on the table is still there.
c.扩展为副词从句
With the continuance of life,there is still hope.
While there is life,there is hope.(表示时间)
The ice was thick enough to walk on.
The ice was so thick that we could walk on it.(表示结果)
Not withstanding the heat of the sun,we must go out.
Hot as the sun is,we must go out.(表示让步)
Mrs Brown was getting older,so her hair turned grey gradually.
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As Mrs Brown was getting older,her hair turned grey gradually. (表示原因)
Hold your tongue,or you will be sorry.
Unless you hold your tongue,you will be sorry.(表示条件)
三者各具功能。简单句简洁明快,措辞严谨,直截了当;并列句则表达同样重要的信息;复合句信息量大,轻重有别,结构上有枝有蔓,能体现出层次。这三种不同的句子形态为语言的表达提供了丰富的选择。使用什么样的句子应取决于实际需要,灵活选用。只有句型多样化,才会行文起伏,流畅自然。
2)句子长度的多样性
尽管人称海明威\"电报大师\但纵观其作品,句子也是长短相间,富于变化,给人以\"万峰起伏,层峦叠嶂\"之感。这一点值得我们在写作中好好借鉴。从整体效果考虑,好的文章应该是该用长句时用长句,该用短句就用短句。因为长句和短句各有千秋。长句的特点是结构层次多,凝重典雅,严密周详,气势畅达,利于复杂思想的表达。严密的论证,但使用起来不够活泼,不够简便。短句的特点是生动简洁,短小精悍,活泼有力,但容量较小,不利于表达复杂的语义内容。在具体语言活动中,为了达到简洁明快。生动活泼,又严密精确。细腻委婉的目的,往往是长短句交替使用。这既体现了节奏上的要求,也是意义上的需要。请看下面这段:
John went to work on foot. He took a bottle of hot tea and delicious lunch in a paper bag. He walked slowly. He enjoyed the cool, early morning air. He also enjoyed the sights and sounds of the streets. The big city was rapidly waking up. It was noisy and turbulent. An energetic little boy was setting his battered shoeshine stand in front of a hotel entrance. A deliveryman was busily slapping down cartons of let-tuce on the sidewalk in front of a grocery store and he was dressed in a white uniform. John saw a friend. The friend was waiting for a taxi. He stopped briefly for a short chat. The walk could yield pleasurable observations. John usually walked to work and he seldom took taxis. Walking made him happy. It also kept him healthy.
从语法和用词来看, 这段文字无可挑剔。但句子长度大体相当,且都是短句,读起来平淡无奇,不妨这样修改:
With a bottle of hot tea and delicious lunch in a paper bag,John walked to work.Slowly he walked,enjoying the cool,early morning air and the sights and sounds of the streets.The big,noisy,turbulent city was rapidly waking up. An energetic little boy was setting his battered shoeshine stand in front of a hotel entrance.A deliveryman dressed in a white uniform was busily slapping down cartons of lettuce on the side walk in front of a grocery store.John saw a friend waiting for a taxi.He stopped briefly a short chat.As the walk usually could yield pleasurable observations,John seldom took taxis.Walking not only made him happy but also kept him healthy.
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改写后的段落中,长短句交替使用,语句叠峦起伏,音韵和谐,语言表达有张有弛,活泼而不乏凝练,紧凑而不显呆板。所以句子的好坏,并不在于长短,简单还是复杂,归根结底在于多变。句子是否多变是衡量一篇文章是否老练成熟的主要标志之一,当然也显示出一个人的英语水平的高低。句子多变主要表现在句型的多样化与长短句的交替使用。但这种交替使用并不是机械的,而是根据不同的语境,选择最能表达作者意图的句子。
总之,面对多种多样的句子,在写作时不分场合简单地偏爱某种句型,会使文字显得呆板,单调,而一味追求长句。复杂句,特别对于那些基本功不扎实的英语初学者来说,会使文章显得华而不实,甚至弄巧成拙。但也有一些初学者为保险起见,过多地使用简单句,甚至认为使用simple sentence符合我们提倡的 Simple English,这也是一种误解。一篇文章只有交替使用合适的长句。 短句,交替使用有效的简单句。复合句,才会显得生动有力。***************** 句子是最高一级的语法单位,是由一个或多个分句构成的。只有一个主语和谓语并能表达完整意思的独立句子是简单句(Simple Sentence),两个或两个以上分句通过并列互连便构成并列句(Compound Sentence);如构成句子的各分句间不是一种并列关系,而是一种主从关系,即一个分句是另一个分句的组成部分,这类分句互相结合的结果便构成复合句(Complex Sentence);如两个或两个以上的分句,其中一个带有主从结构并由并列连词连接起来,便构成并列复合句(Compound-complex Sentence)。上面这种对句子的分类法仅是从句子结构方面来分的,除这种分类法外,英语的句子还有许多分类方法,现分述之:
1.根据用途来分:
(1)陈述句(Declarative Sentence):叙述一项事实(包括肯定和否定),例如:
Mark Twain is a great American writer.
I have never been to Japan.
(2)疑问句(Interrogative Sentence):用来提出疑问的句子。共有四种:
一般疑问句:Are you married？
疑问句:Who is that person over there？
疑问句:Are you going by bus or by train？
疑问句:It is cold, isn't it？
(3)祈使句(Imperative Sentence):通常表示一种请求。命令或建议,例如:
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Be careful.
Let it be a lesson to all of us.
(4)感叹句(Exclamatory):表示喜。怒。哀。乐等强烈感情的句子,例如:
What an interesting book it is？
How lovely and lively the child is？
2.根据结构来分:
(1)简单句(Simple Sentence):只有一个主语和谓语的独立分句并能表达完整的意思。简短的简单句通常用于强调,提出主要的观点。结论或重要的事实。有时也用来描写快捷的动作或传递激动兴奋的感情。
简单句的分类:从说话或写作的人对所说或写的句子抱什么态度来看,简单句又分为陈述句。疑问句。祈使句。感叹句四种。
(2)并列句(Compound Sentence):由两个或更多并列而又相互独立的句子组成。从意义上说,这些分句是同等重要的;从结构上看,它们平行并列,相互之间没有从属的关系。并列句的各个分句通常用并列连词或副词连接起来。例如:
I do not talk much, but I think a lot.
Something went wrong with my bike this afternoon, so I walked home.
(3)复合句(Complex Sentence):构成句子的各分句间不是一种并列关系而是一种主从关系,即一个句子中分主句和从句,这样的结果便构成复合句。主句为句子的主体;从句只是整个句子的一个部分,尽管它也有主语和动词等主要句子成分,但不能在意义上独立成为一个句子。从句的种类有如下几种:
名词从句:从句在主句中起相当于名词的作用。根据它在句子中所起的作用又可分为:
主语从句:That the earth moves around the sun is known to us all.
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表语从句:That is why he is late.
宾语从句:We firmly believe that he will succeed in the end.
副词从句:从句在句子中修饰动词。形容词或副词时,相当于副词所起的作用,也称状语从句。这种从句根据它的意义的不同选用不同的连词,大体上可分为表示时间。地点。原因。条件。让步。结果。目的。比较。方式等类:
表示时间的状语从句通常用when, while, after, before, since, until, as, as soon as等引导,如:
When the field is ready, the farmer will sow the wheat.
It will be a long time before we finish the task.
表示原因的状语从句通常用because, as, since, now that引导,如:
He didn't come yesterday as his mother was ill.
Now that everything is ready, let's begin our party.
表示地点的状语从句通常用where, wherever引导,如:
Where there is heat, there is motion.
We will go wherever we are needed most by the Party.
表示条件的状语从句一般用if,supposing,provided,unless,as long as等引导,如:
If the wind drops, we'll go skating.
We are safe as long as we are in his care.
表示让步的状语从句通常用although, though ,even if, whatever, however等连词引导,如:
Although he was ill, he persevered with his experiment.
However great a person is, he should be modest.
表示结果或程度的状语从句常常与so, such连用,而从句本身多用that引导,如:It was so dark that we could see nothing in front of us.(表示程度)
She was worried so that she could not go to sleep.(表示结果)
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表示目的的状语从句通常用so that, that, in order that等连词引导,从句中多用might, may(有时也用can)等情态动词,意思与前一类表示结果或程度的状语从句不同。
表示比较的状语从句通常用连词than或as...as, not as(so)...as, as though, as if引导,如:
The work is not as easy as I thought.
表示方式或状态的状语从句用as来引导,表达\"如同\"。\"按照\"等意思,如:
He does as the doctor advises.
形容词从句修饰主句中的某个名词或代词时,起着相当于形容词的作用,也叫定语从句,一般由关系代词和关系副词引导:
用关系代词引导的定语从句,关系代词有who, whom, whose, that, which ,如:
Tom is the student whose English is the best in our class.
The scientist whom you want to see is coming.
用关系副词引导的定语从句,关系副词有when, where, why,如:
Sunday is the time when I am the least busy.
Is this the school where you taught。
I do not know the reason why she cried.
(4)并列复合句(Compound-complex Sentence):由两个或更多的主句和至少一个从句组成。例如:
He is an honest person, and everybody believes what he says.
3.根据修辞来分:
松散句(Loose Sentence):把句子的主干放在其他成分的前面。并列句是一种松散句;当主句出现在从句之前时,复合句也是松散句;简单句则根据其主干和附属部分的安排顺序,可分为松散句和调尾句。例如:
She was interested in music, but she finally went to this institute to study English.
Finally she went to this institute to study English, though she was interested in music.
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The willow somehow suggested a young woman, with her long hair flowing in the wind.
作用:松散句自然简洁。直接。有高潮,平铺直叙,用于列举同等重要的事实或观点。
调尾句(Periodic Sentence):把句子的主干放在其他成分的后面,直到句子结束,语法意思才完整。如:
With its long twigs in the wind, the willow somehow suggested a young woman.
Though she was interested in music, she finally came to this institute to study English.
作用:作者用调尾句以达到高潮。
(3)平衡句(Balanced Sentence):此类句子结构类似,意义相对,常用and , whereas引导。如:
The politician is concerned with successful elections, whereas the statesman is interested in the future of his people.
作用:常用于说明文和议论文中,特别是观点相对时。
4. 根据作者所需来分:
长句(Long Sentence):长句用于比较精确地表达复杂的思想,介绍理论和观点;在文学作品中,长句用于描写。
短句(Short Sentence):用于表达观点。结论或重要的事实;在文学作品中短句用于描述快捷的动作或传递兴奋激动的情感。*********************
语言学研究理论表明:句子是能够表达完整意思。构成话语或篇章的可以独立运用的基本语言单位 。从某种意义上讲,句子实际上是文章的缩影,文章的写作其实就是句子的写作,句子的质量本身就反映了文章的质量。因为一篇文章是由若干段落组成,而段落又是由句子编织起来的。没有正确的合乎英语习惯的句子作保证,就组织不起来一个象样的段落,更谈不上写出一篇优美的文章。因此,写好句子,以达到准确无误地传递思想的目的,对写文章来说至关重要。
法国著名作家福楼拜在谈到写作中的选词问题时,讲过这样一段名言:\"不论我们要说什么东西,只有一个名词可以把它表现出来,只有一个动词可以赋予它运动,只有一个形容词对它进行描述。\"
福楼拜是一个现实主义者,也是一个唯美主义者,他的要求显然是过于完美,对大多数人来说是可望而不可及的一种境界。但是我们写作,总是希望能够选出比较满意。确切的词来从容地表达自己的意思。然而,英语的词汇丰富多彩,给它的使用者带来选词上的种种难题。选词得当,则达意传神;选词不当,则会造成误解。我国唐朝诗人贾岛带来诗句\"鸟宿池边树,僧敲月下门\";\"两句三年得,一吟双泪流\足见其在字句推敲上所下的功夫。古人这种字斟句酌的
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严谨态度是值得我们在写作中好好借鉴的。因为写作主要是传达信息,表达思想,阐明观点,以达到实际交流的目的。选词是否得当对准确。快速。明了。简练地表达思想,文章能否产生预期的效果举足轻重。
一。 选词的原则
1.恰当合适
合适的词指的是适合文章的主题。口气和风格的词。例如,主题有严肃和轻松之分,风格有华丽和朴实。冗赘和简洁。隐晦与明快之分。怎样才能选择合适的词语呢。让我们先了解一下英语词汇的构成。
英语词汇十分丰富。大致可以分为四类:一,深奥词(learned),这些词从拉丁语。法语和希腊语中借来,一般由受过教育者使用,并且使用场合一般很正式。二,大众词(popular),此类词为大部分作者。读者所共有,通过使用这些共同的词语,不同社会地位的人们才能够说着同一种语言,这类词语是他们每天交际时必不可少的。三,口语词(colloquial),此类词是指非正式谈话和写作中使用的词语和习语,这些词语和习语被认为不适合有礼貌的会话或正式的通信场合,使用口语词突出了某一社交场合的非正式程度。例如:awfully (very);back of (behind);mad (angry);guy (man);hassle ( brother);movie( film) 四,俚语词(slang), 这些词一般是新造的,变化迅速,供青年人或社会行业集团\"内部\"交流时使用。
对于一般英语写作者,特别是英语初学者来说,应该纠正一种错误观点,即作文中正式程度高的词语越多,表明语言根底越好。其实,一般而言,最适合选择的应是大众词。下面这些成对的同义词中,在口语化的句子和非正式文体中宜选用右边的词。因为它们文字浅显,句型简单,语言活泼而又通俗易懂。
inform / tell, initiate/start, location / place, alternative / choice, accomplish /finish, fabricate /make, possess / have, purchase / buy, sufficient /enough, terminate /end, tilize /use, velocity /speed, affection /love, anticipate / expect, converse/ talk, appropriate / proper等等。比如一句趋于口语化的句子\"我等医生时读了好几本杂志。\"如果译成\"I pursued
several periodicals while I waited for the doctor.\"就不如译为\"I read several magazines while I was waiting for the doctor.\"。又如:\"数据研究表明,该产品在这个地区十分畅销。\"这句话,如果分别用正规文体的词和非正规文体的词翻译,它们之间的优劣就显而易见。试比较如下:
Formal:The conclusions ascertained from a persual of the pertiment data is that a lucrative market exists for the product in this vicinity.
Informal:The data studied show that the product is in good demand in this area.再看下面三句:
(1)It is imperative that I save some money.
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(2)I must save some money.
(3)I have got to save some money.
一般来说,第一句正式程度过高,而第三句非常口语化,在一般的写作中,第二句较为合适。
通过比较,我们不难看出用正规文体的词所造出的句子显得冗长。生硬。艰涩。饶口。造作;而选用非正规文体词造出的句子则显得简短。生动。明了。易懂。朴实。
2.准确达意
准确达意是针对词的外延(denotation)和词的内涵(connotation)而言的。词的外延指词的直接意义;词的内涵指在词的本义基础上扩展出来的深层含义。如wet的本义是covered, soaked or moistened with liquid,esp.water \"由液体(尤指水)所覆盖。浸透或弄湿\"。但在下列各句中,wet 一词又有不同的含义:
(1) At that time he was still wet behind the tears.那时候他还是个乳臭未干的小子。
(2) If you think I am for him,you are all wet.如果你认为我支持他,那你就大错特错了。
(3) She had a wet nurse for the baby.她雇了一个奶妈给婴儿喂奶。
(4) Don't be so wet.别那么蠢。
因此,在选择用词时,不仅要考虑词的本义,而且要从句子表达的内容。词语的搭配关系等方面,考虑词语的内在涵义。
此外,还要注意词语的褒贬感情色彩和意义上。用法上的细微差别。语言学家指出,从严格意义上来说,没有两个词在意义上是完全相同的。同义词之间,尽管它们的所表达的意义相似,但它们不是在正式程度上有差异,就是在内涵意义上有区别,即在感情色彩上有所不同。比如:stout(健壮),plump(丰满),fat(肥胖)。这三个词是同义词,但显然在内涵意义上有差异。再如:handsome指男性的外表漂亮,beautiful指女性的外表漂亮,pretty指女性以及儿童的外表漂亮。又如:statesman, politician 的外延相同,但内涵不同,statesman是褒义词,politician 是贬义词,同是从事政界活动的人,本党的领袖被称为statesman,他党的领袖则称为politician。一个学习刻苦认真的学生,可以被称为是a serious student,a diligent student或a hard-working student
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但grind虽有\"用功学生\"的意思,但有\"过分用功的书呆子\"的涵义。resolute与stubborn,这对词的共同意思是\"不屈不挠\"。然而,前者为褒义词,后者为贬义词。We all like to work with a resolute person but we do not like to work with a stubborn one.(我们都喜欢与坚定的人一道工作而不喜欢与顽固的人共事。)再如country,nation,state, land 都有\"国家\"的意思,但它们的内涵则有所不同。country 着重于\"政治。领土方面\着重于\"民族方面\着重于\"政治组织方面\而land着重于\"眷恋故土方面\"。例如:Tears rolled down the old man's cheeks when on the plane he caught sight of his native land which he had left 50 years before.(当老人从飞机上看到阔别五十年之久的故土时,泪水顺着他的脸颊上流下来。)The entire nation was watching the developments of the incident.整个民族在关注这一事件的发展动态。
总之,我们在英语写作中,一定要考虑所选词的本义和涵义,考虑词的感情色彩,决不可\"信笔漫游\"。只有这样,才能准确传递作者的意图,表达作者的感情与态度。
3.清晰生动
这里涉及到一般概念(类概念)与个别概念(种概念)的差别。词可以分成一般概念的词(general word )和个别概念的词(specific word)。如:instrument, tool是一般概念的词,axe,hammer,wrench,knife是个别概念的词;tree是一般概念的词,elm,pine,oak,maple是个别概念的词,因为它们都属于树的范畴。同样furniture,clothing,flower,crime,animal是一般概念的词,sofa,raincoat,rose,murder,dog是个别概念的词。表示行为或性质的词也可以这样分类,如go可看作一般概念的词,而walk,run,drive可看作个别概念的词。
表示一般含义的词含义模糊,表示个别概念的词含义明确。为了表达准确和生动形象,我们应该善于使用个别概念的词。这样可以达到以下效果:
(1) 一般的变成特定的。
She loves flowers.她爱花。
She loves rose and chrysanthemum.她爱玫瑰和菊花。
A few houses were destroyed yesterday.昨天毁坏了几栋房子。
Five houses were burnt down yesterday.昨天烧毁了五栋房子。
(2) 抽象的变成具体的。
He had a misfortune while swimming.他在游泳时发生了不幸。
A shell fragment ripped open his right arm while he was swimming.在游泳时碎贝壳划破了他的右臂。
Tom is a lazy boy.汤姆是个懒孩子。
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Tom usually sleeps late in the morning and does little work after he gets up.早晨汤姆常睡懒觉,起床后也无所事事。
(3)模糊的变成明确的。
Moby Dick has a philosophical theme.《白鲸》有一个富于哲理的主题。
The theme of Moby Dick is the battle between human will and natural forces.《白鲸》的主题是人的意志与自然力量的搏斗。
Certain people in my family disagree with my attitude towards grades.我家里有人不赞成我对成绩的态度。
My father and mother disagree with my view that acquiring knowledge is more important than getting good grades.我父母亲不赞成我这个求知重于得分的观点。
综上所述,不难看出,准确具体的用词传达清楚明确的思想。用词越具体,读者获得的信息就越具体。最后让我们来看一组实例:
I met a writer who is related to a politician.我见过一位与一个政治家有关系的作家。
I met a newspaper writer who is related to a senator.我见过一位与一个参议员有关系的新闻记者。
I met a columnist who is related to a senator from New York.我见过一位与纽约的一个参议员有关系的专栏作家。
I met the columnist Tom, who is related to Senator John of New York.我见过专栏作家汤姆,他与纽约的参议员约翰有关系。
I met the columnist Tom,who is the brother of Senator John of New York.我见过专栏作家汤姆,他是纽约的参议员约翰的兄弟。
这五个句子一个比一个具体,意思越来越明确,虽然句子逐渐变长,却不拖沓累赘,因为每一个词都必不可少,算得上明确具体的典范。
合理使用一般概念的词和个别概念的词能够加强文章的准确性和表现力。一般说来文章的开头与结尾以及段落里的主题句(Topic Sentence)宜选用概括力比较强的表示笼统意义的词;而具体。有个性的词往往用于细节的刻画和对事物的描述。现以\"美国人理想的伟大领袖\"(The American Ideal of a Great Leader)一文其中一段为例,看看词的概括意义与具体意义在文章段落中的应用:
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Lincoln had many personal qualities that made him dear to the hearts of his countrymen.He had infinite patience and tolerance for those who disagree with him.As a president,he appointed men to high governmentposition who he considered most capable,even though some of them openly scorned him.He was generous to his opponents...
这段文章主题句用了概括性很强的词( quality )。林肯的许多特性使得他深受美国人民的爱戴。然而,他的鲜明特征又表现在什么地方呢。在主题句下的三个扩展句(supporting sentences)中,作者通过具有个性的词(patience, tolerance, generous),表现出林肯总统对持不同政见的人的忍让,对能人能任人唯贤,对自己的反对者能宽宏大量。从三个方面借助词的具体意义刻画出了林肯总统所具有的鲜明特征。
4. 形象具体
所谓形象具体,主要是针对抽象词(abstract word)和具体词(concrete word)而言。抽象词表示思想观念。伦理道德 ,还可以表示人们的喜怒哀乐和悲欢离合。如system, virtue,vice,happiness,sorrow,hatred,concept;具体的词表示通过我们的感觉能看到。听到。嗅到和摸到的具体事物。如knowledge 是抽象的词,而book是具体的词。我们可以触摸一本书,但知识只有通过学习才能掌握;democracy是抽象的词,ballot(选票)是具体的词。我们可以用手拿到选票,而民主的概念只有通过思考才能弄明白。
这两种词都不可避免地出现在几乎所有的文章中。但是,不能在一篇文章中过多地使用抽象词,否则会影响文章意思的表达。只有具体词和抽象词的恰当配合和使用,才会使读者得到一种精炼生动的感觉。请看下面两个例句:
Happiness is a cancelled 8:00 class on a cold,rainy morning.
Panic is realizing that next Wednesday's test is this Wednesday.
在上面两个句子中,抽象词的含义由具体的和熟悉的事例具体化了,给人以极其生动和真实的感觉。再看下面这段文章:
Public opinion is a powerful thing,but it is often blind and fool-ish.It often destroys what is good and true and sets up in a high place what is false and useless or harmful.It is like fire,water or wind;it mayeither serve you or destroy you.
这段话告诉我们,舆论并不是经常能产生有益的效果。它常常会表现得盲目和愚蠢。它正像水。火或风一样,可以为大家服务,也可以毁灭大家。
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水。火。风是自然界的常见现象,人们了解它们的益处和害处,因而选用这些具体的词无疑就增强了表达的清晰度和形象性。************ 5.合乎习惯
所谓合乎习惯,主要是指那些不可逐词理解,而必须从整体上来解释其意义的表达方式。习惯用语是一种语言所特有的,作为一种长期固定下来的语言表达形式,当中其实没有太多的规则可以讲究。因此,要写出地道的英语文章,自然少不了使用英语习惯用语。适当和正确地使用习惯用语,能使作文更生动,更具有表达力。对于以英语为母语的人来说 ,通晓和把握成语固然不成问题,然而对于把英语作为外语的国人来说,成语中的一些用词搭配,往往就变得难以捉摸。
英语中众多的习惯用语是由一些常用动词发展起来的。如break out(爆发),
do away with(消除),get up(起床),make a point of(决心),take off (起飞)等。除此之外,还有大量的涉及名词和形容词的习惯用语。正确使用英语习惯用语的关键是要牢记与某一动词。形容词或名词搭配的介。副词。现略举几例:
agree with (sb.)
identical with
agree to(sth.) be dependent on
be angry with sb. be independent of
be angry at sth. be jealous of
be concerned for make a point of
be concerned with protect from
differ with protest against
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differ from regret for
be different from be sensitive to
guard against be superior to
have something to do with sympathize with
英语中,不少动词有与其相应的\"动词+名词+介词\"结构。例如:
study
make a study of look
take a look at sight
catch sight of talk
have a talk with stop
put a stop to
decide
make a decision to do
try to do
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make an effort to
discuss
have a discussion of
和其他习惯用语一样,这些短语大大丰富了英语的表达方式。然而,需要注意的是,过多地使用名词结构,会给人以空洞无物之感。例如:
The committee made a decision to make an effort to improve the proposal promptly.
如果我们减少名词的使用,就会得到一个简单易懂的句子:
The committee decided to improve the proposal promptly.
6.避免陈词滥调
中文写作中有一个说法:第一个把姑娘比做花的是天才,第二个把姑娘比做花的是庸才,第三个把姑娘比做花的人是蠢才。这个原则在英文写作中一样适用。当一个边疆人第一次对人说,He had slept like a log.(他睡得像一根木头一样的死沉。),这边疆人就是语言的天才,比喻用得形象而又生动。但假如到今天还反反复复在用这个比喻,就显得陈腐。毫无新意了。诸如以下一些词组,反复使用下来,常常显得单调乏味,使文章变得死气沉沉,违背了原来的初衷:
cool as a cucumber 冷冰冰像根黄瓜
blind as a bat
瞎得像只蝙蝠
busy as a bee 忙得像只蜜蜂
crystal clear 水晶般清澈
white as a sheet
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白得像一张纸
light as a feather 轻得像根羽毛
写作的要旨在于生动活泼,所以陈旧的表达方式最好能够尽量避免。如果感到非用不可,不妨略加改造,注入一点新鲜血液,如用到to have butterfly in one's stomach(紧张得发抖)时, 我们完全可以这样来改写这个习语:If all of the action in my stomach is caused by butterflies,there must be a troop of them,with horsehoes on.如果说蝴蝶在我肚子里扑个不停,毫无疑问那里是有一支大军,马蹄哒哒奔腾着。
试想一支蝴蝶大军,足下还装备了马蹄,实在是叫人匪夷所思的绝妙想象,把说话人翻江倒海的心理状况活龙活现地勾画出来。像这样活用习语会使文章富有生气,激发读者的想象力和好奇心,是大可认真尝试的。
二。用词多样化
在英语写作中,措词造句要尽可能地避免不必要的用词重复,以免使文章单调乏味,缺乏表现力,而且会使读者感觉到作者词汇量的贫乏。为了做到这一点,应采用如下的方法:
1. 使用不同的单词和短语表达同样的概念。
同其他语言一样,英语中也存在着大量的同义词,而且在许多情况下,一个单词的含义往往可以使用一些短语来表达。例如:
(1) The fog was so thick that we could not see anything.
The fog was so dense that we could not see anything.
(2)You had better take this table away. It takes too much room.
You had better take this table away. It takes too much space.
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(3)It is said that the new railway station is about twenty miles away from our village.
It is said that the new railway station is some twenty miles distant from our village.
(4)Finally he came to understand it.
At length he came to understand it.
In the end he came to understand it.
At last he came to understand it.
(5)Even if I had a large amount of money, I would not spend much on foods.
Even if I had loads of money, I would not spend much on foods.
Even if I had a lot of money, I would not spend much on foods.
(6)An increase in demand causes higher prices.
An increase in demand results in higher prices.
An increase in demand leads to higher prices.
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An increase in demand produces higher prices.
(7)It is generally/widely argued that...
It is generally/widely accepted that...
It is generally /widely held that...
It is generally /widely believed that...
(8)In conclusion it can be said that...
In short,it can be said that...
In a word,it can be said that...
Finally,it can be said that...
(9)The demand has increased.Therefore,the prices are higher.
The demand has increased.As a result,the prices are higher.
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The demand has increased.Accordingly,the prices are higher.
The demand has increased.So the prices are higher.
The demand has increased.Because of this,the prices are higher.The demand has increased.Thus,the prices are higher
The demand has increased.Hence,the prices are higher.
The demand has increased.For this reason,the prices are higher.
The demand has increased.Now,the prices are higher.
(10)It is very important that...
It is of great importance that...
It is of great significance that...
It is essential that...
It is necessary that...
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It is of great necessity that...
2.采用替代的方法
为了避免不必要的重复,我们可以根据上述\"同一概念用不同的词来表达\"的原则,采用替代或变换说法等方法,这里所说的替代包括用代词和具有相同指代功能的词替代。例如:
Some college students argue that the students should give up love for the sake of learning.They maintain that love is time consuming and that tears one away from learning.If a student falls in love, he will certainly fall behind in his courses.
上面一段就是使用了代词替代的方法,分别用they 指代some college students, he代替a student, 这样不仅避免了重复,而且还可以起到连接上下文的效果。A computer can be made to do all problems that its human operator could do if he had unlimited time to make his computations.The machine,however,will let you have the answer much faster.
上段利用machine和computer之间的上下文关系, 用the machine来代替computer,避免了重复*****
段落是由一组彼此相关的句子组成的,它是介于句子和篇章之间的一个基本有机单位,是组成一篇文章的基本要素和连句成篇的必经阶段。许多主要的写作技巧都可以体现在一个结构合理。安排有序的段落中。因此,学习段落的写作可以说是一条简便而又有效的捷径。但是段落不是由词的随意堆积。句子的简单连接而成的,而必须经过精心的搭配。有序巧妙的组合形成,从而达到传递信息。表达思想的目的。所以所谓段落就是一组有关联的句子,以全文的中心思想的其中一个侧面为中心衔接而成的一段文字。文章段与段之间给读者一个间歇的机会,同时帮助读者抓住全文中心思想的各个侧面,因而每个段落的段落大意就是全文中心思想的组成部分。一个作者按一定的次序给全文分段,目的就是帮助读者摸清作者的思路,从而了解作者的意图。这就像一座城市在四通八达。纵横交错的马路的各个路口设置表明前后左右方向的路标,目的是帮助行人找到目的地。一座城市里如果没有路标,行人就无所适从,同样一篇文章没有段落,读者将不知所云。
段落的结构：
段落的结构通常有以下几个特点1)段落包含一个由主题句表达的中心思想,主题句可位于段首。段中或段尾或隐含主题;(2)段落包括许多与主题句相关的支撑句;(3)主要支撑句又依靠细节来充分阐述;(4)段落的内容必须按照逻辑顺序进行表达,可借助于逻辑指示词或连接词来表示句与句之间的关系;(5)段落常含有一个结尾句。
一个段落一般由三部分组成:主题句(Topic Sentence)。扩展句(Developing Sentence)和结论句(Concluding Sentence)。例如:
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(主题句)Reasons for the growing popularity of fast-food chains appear obvious enough.(扩展句)For one thing, the food is generally cheap. A hamburger at McDonald's, for example, costs about one half as much as a similar meal at a regular sit-down restaurant.(扩展句)Another advantage of the chains is their convenience.For busy working couples who do not want to spend the time or effort cooking,fast-food restaurants offer an attractive alternative.(结论句)And,judging by the fact that customers return in increasing numbers,many Americans like the taste of food.
从上面的例子来看,快餐连锁店日益普遍的原因非常明显,这是段落的主题句。原因主要反映在快餐的廉价。方便两个方面。这是段落的两个扩展句。结论句起到与主题相呼应,小结全段文字的作用。
一、主题句
主题句是英文段落的典型特点。顾名思义,主题句就是提供段落主题的句子。它是一个段落的中心,要求全段所有的文字都围绕它来展开。它指出了这段内容的主导思想。主题句是一篇文章的灵魂,在段落中起着中心作用。没有主题句,段落就缺少中心,段落意义也就含糊不清。因此,写好段落的主题句是写好作文的关键,一个好的主题句应该首先紧扣文章的中心思想,把段落的内容限定在文章的中心内容之内。
1.主题句的位置
主题句在段落中处于不同位置,有不同的作用,各有特殊的目的。一般说来,主题句常处于下列不同位置:
(1)段首主题句:主题句常常放在段落的开始,它预示或概述下面所要展开的思想。这种段落可以比作一个竖立的三角形,上面的尖端代表主题句,下面逐渐扩大,给主题句的论点提供论证和细节。其特点是读者一读到主题句就迅速领会段落的主要内容。如:
例1:My uncle is well respected in our community.He is on theBoard of Governors of our community college.He is the chairman of our United Way committee.He is also an active member of the local theatre guide and a coach of our hockey team.Moreover,last month he was elected Alderman and now sits on our city council.
例2: More and more people
today are realizing the importance of regular physical exercise.In the past, most people were involved in manual labor out in the fresh air of the fields.Nowadays,a lot of people work in offices,spending most of their time indoors.In the evening they usually sit watching TV or reading newspapers.Their daily lives do not provide them with the exercises needed to keep them healthy.Therefore,they must devote part of their time to doing regular physical exercise.
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(2)段尾主题句:主题句先不出现,而是从许多细节出发,逐渐收拢,一步步归纳到中心论点,用一句总结性的主题句把前面所陈述的一切概括出来,作出结论。这种段落可以比作一个倒置的三角形,其项端向下。其作用是它可以造成悬念,产生戏剧性效果或对全段进行概括总结。如;
例1: Running up and down the court gives my muscles tone and resilience.Shooting at the basket helps me develop a good sense of co-ordination and balance,and the exercise keeps my heart in good condi-tion.In short,playing basketball keeps me in good shape.
例2: During their visit,Dee takes pictures,everyone of them,in-cluding the one of the house that she used to live in and hate.She takes the churn top and dasher,both whittled out of a tree by one of Mama's uncles.She tries to take Grandma Dee's quilts.Mama and Maggie use these inherited items every day,not only appreciating their heritage but living it too.Dee,on the other hand,wants these items only for decorative use,thus forsaking and ignoring their real inheritage.
(3)首尾主题句:主题句先在段首提出来,然后在段末重复一遍,即\"首尾并用\"。先扩张,继之以收拢,即把竖立和倒立两个三角形合并成菱形,使中心思想占首尾两个显著位置,重复两次,从而更加突出强调。其特点是使主题句的内容前后照应,给读者留下深刻的印象。如:
例1: Daily jogging is one of the best exercises you can do for your body.It develops muscle tone and is excellent for your cardiovascular system,ensuring that your heart and lungs are in prime condition.It also burns off a great many calories,preventing you from gaining unneeded weight.Yes,nothing beats jogging for keeping you in excellent physical condition,no matter what your age.
例2:Many of the difficulties we experience in relationships are caused by the unrealistic expectations we have of each other.Think about it.Women are expected to feel comfortable doing most of the sacrificing.They are supposed to stay fine,firm,and forever twenty-two,while doing double duty in the home and workplace.The burden on men is no easier.They should be tall,handsome,and able to wine and dine the women.Many women go for the glitter and then expect these men to calm down once in a relationship and become faithful,sensitive,supportive,and loving.Let's face it.Both women and men have been unrealistic.It's time we developed a new sensitivity toward each other and asked ourselves what it is we need from each other that is realistic and fair.
(4)段中主题句:当我们对两种事物或某事物的两个方面进行比较或对照时,主题句常常在段落的中间出现。在这种段落中,通常先提出一个观点并稍加发挥,接着主题句出现,笔锋一转,提出不同或相反论点,然后展开论证。论述的中心是二者的相异点。其特点是不仅使问题多
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样化,而且使内容协调一致。
例1: Californians and New Englanders are both American.They speak the same language and abide by the same federal laws.But they arevery different in their ways of life.Mobility--- both physical and psy-chological --- has made a great impression on the culture of Californians;lack of mobility is the mark of the customs and morality of New Eng-landers.
例2: Many people have heard about the famous Leaning Tower of Pisa,but few know that Pisa also has a university of ancient origin.In about the year 1580 its most illustrious student was a mathematical genius named Galileo,who was soon to invent the hydrostatic balance,a thermometer,and a proportional compass.But Galileo's invention was his telescope,which enabled him to make some significant contributions to astronomy.It was this instrument that made it possible for Galileo to discover satellites around Jupiter,the unevenness of the moon's surface,and the fact that the Milky Way is a vast collection of stars.By studying sunspots,he was also able to infer the rotation of the sun..
(5) 隐含主题句:有时段落并不出现主题句,而是\"意在其中\此种情况适合于主题非常明显或已清楚地隐含在某段落中。在叙述性和描绘性的段
落中主题句是暗含的,其原因是段落内所有细节和内容是紧密联系的,使读者易于理解段落的中心内容。
例1: The Reedman newspaper advertisement invites customers to a hundred-and-fifty acre,one-stop center that has ten-million dollar selec-tion of cars---and then,adding the note of exclusivity that is considered necessary in advertising even the world's largest,it says,\" Private Sale Now Going On.\" The premises on which the private sale is held look like the average citizen's vision of the suplt depot at Cam Ranh Bay.Behind a series of showrooms on Route 1,just down the road from the Greenwood Dairies,the five thousand cars are lined up on acres and acres of asphalt—the neat rows interrupted by occasional watchtowers and the entire area surrounded by a heavy,iron, electronically monitored fence.On a busy Saturday,attendants direct streams of traffic in and out of the customers' parking lot.Hostesses with the dress and manner of airline stewardesses circulate in the showrooms offering to call a salesman for anybody who feels the need for one.Muzak, which reaches the most remote line of hardtops, is interrupted every two or three bars by calls for salesmen.
这里隐含的主题如果写出来可以是这样:In spite of
its pretense of being private and exclusive,Reedman's Car Dealership is huge,over-whelming,and impersonal.
例2: Among the great men of the renaissance,many were artists,like aphael,Titian, Michelangelo, Van Dyke, and Rembrandt. Others were poets,such as
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Spenser,Shakespeare,Tosso,and Ronsard.Still others were pioneers in science.Galileo and Kelper in astronomy,for instance,and Vesalius and Harvey in medicine.
此段暗含的主题句是:\"The Renaissance produced many creative people in different fields.\"
值得注意的是,主题句无论在什么位置,它都必须为段落中心服务,其余各句思想的展开也必须紧扣主题。
2.主题句的基本要求
(1)必须紧扣文章的标题,限定段落的内容。如:
There are many different forms of exercises suiting different tastes.Some people enjoy competitive sports and find others to share their interest.For example,they play table tennis or football together,Others prefer to exercise alone. They do some running in the morning. Clearly,different people are fond of different forms of physical exercise to improve their health.
(2)段落主题句必须完整,即能表达一个完整的思想。该段落将围绕这一主题句逐步展开,或定义,或论述,或分类,或解释,或举例说明。因此,段落主题句中必须包含有段落的主旨,必须包含一个等待发展的思想。以\"The Value of Books\"中的一段为例:
Books bring us pleasure as well as knowledge.They make us able to see through the past and to see into the future.Macaulay,the famous historian,once wrote to a little girl:\"If any one would make me the greatest king that even lived with palaces and gardens,fine dinners and beautiful clothes and hundreds of servants on condition that I should not read books,I would not be a king.I would rather be a poor man in a top room with plenty of books than a king who did not live reading.\"
这一段的主题句为:\"Books bring us pleasure as well as knowledge.\"。其主导思想为\"pleasure as well as knowledge.\这段内容就是围绕这一主导思想而展开的。
(3)主题句应该具有一定的限定性。它应该限定该段落的内容不致于偏离全文的中心内容,而且,一个段落的容量是很有限的,如果主题句限定的范围太宽,主题句的内容就无法在该段落内得以阐述清楚。例如以Cheating on the Campus为题的作文为例,用Cheating is popular 或者Cheating is bad 或者Cheating is understand-able 就过于笼统了。cheating 指的是什么。即使是在大学校园里,cheating可以表现在考试。爱情。图书馆等各个方面,不确定具体的范围,
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主题句就形同虚设,等于还是停留在题目上。因此,一个好的主题句,不仅要表达作者的态度,还需要根据内容和字数方面的要求,对题目的范围进行控制和确定。例如:
Whatever pressures,academic or professional,experienced by students,cheating on the exam is not allowed.
Academic and professional pressures make it understandable that cheating on the exam is widespread on the campus today.
Cheating on the exam is popular on the campus today because of academic and professional pressures.
(4)主题句不能太具体。如果太具体,作者就无法在文字上加以展开。例如:
I completed my math test yesterday.
上面这个句子内容过于具体,范围限定太狭窄,其义不言自明,也不便进一步阐述。因此,不宜用作段落主题句。不妨这样修改:
We are given too many math tests.
这样我们就可以通过事实。例证或具体细节等对其加以展开。论证或描述,因而是较理想的主题句。
(5)主题句中不宜包括太多不相关的观点。否则,整个段落就会缺乏统一性。例如:
Shanghai is famous for its temperate climate, its large population, and its rapid industrial development.
这句话包括了三个方面的内容,难以在一个段落中同时讲述。因此,最好只是取其中之一,三个观点应放在三个段落中分别加以论述。****************** 一、描写文的特征：
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描写的目的是通过语言给读者以生动、鲜明的形象。这些形象虽然是以文字描写出来的，但有时比具体色彩绘成的图画更具有感染力，因为它们不但有人或物的形状，还会让读者感到声响、思维变化以及颜料无法表达的一些韵味。
同记叙文相比，记叙侧重时间，而描写更侧重空间，从而使被描写的对象形象鲜明、具有立体感。下面是法国女作家Francine du Plessix Gray笔下的一座小城堡：
The landscape out of Aunt Charlotte's window was as flat as any in my memory;there was not a hillock,not a rock,to disturb the monotonous platitude of its horizon.A serene,dead straight alley of luxuriant chestnut trees stretched from the little castle to the country road.To the left,stood some dilapidated buildings that had once served as stables and servants' quarters.The old greenhouse to the right of the entrance had also been abandoned since the war,when the family fortune declined sharply.In the flower beds circling about the castle's entrance,only the simplest and most tenacious of flowers-hydrangeas,geraniums-fought their way nobly through tall clumps of weeds.
二、描写文常用方法：
第一是在日常谈话或商业广告中对有关对象的某些主要特征加以简要描写，这种描写方法叫做Popular Method。
第二是在旅游胜地介绍和小说中对有关对象的多方面特征加以合理组织和富有技巧的描写，从而推出鲜明丰满的艺术形象，这种描写叫做Artistic Method。
第三是在科技文章中对有关对象的特性加以完整、准确的描写，如同摄影和复印一样，目的给人以真实的印象，这种描写叫做Scientific Method。
第四是在诗歌和其他一些文艺作品中通过描写激发读者的联想，并通过自己的想象得到艺术享受和启迪，这种描写叫做Suggestive Method。
当然，这四种方法是最基本的，不可能截然分开，在实际使用中会互相渗透。
三、写好描写文的两个关键
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好的描写一定要抓住两个关键：突出印象和丰实细节。试比较下面两个描写主题句：
(1)The student lounge is a place where students congregate in a leisurely fashion and as a consequence it is not always attractive and neat.
(2)The student lounge is a messy room.
上述(1)句过于松散，主题被冲淡了，给读者的印象模糊，而(2)句简练有力，messy一词立刻抓住了读者的注意力：怎么样的一个messy room呢？接下去就是要作好细节描写。如照上述(2)句进行描写，就要紧紧围绕messy着笔，不要写学生如何做功课，也不要写墙上有什么色彩画报，而要写诸如吐在地毯上的橡皮糖，肮脏的桌子上抛下的蛋壳、面包皮，等等。
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