2002) Gender and information technology Implications of definitions

ISECON 2001 Best Paper Award Winner

Gender and Information Technology: Implications of

Definitions

Wendy Cukier Denise Shortt Irene Devine

School of Information Technology Management

Ryerson University 350 Victoria St.

Toronto, Ontario, M5B 2K3, Canada

ABSTRACT

This paper examines implications of definitions of information technology to women's participation in the industry and in academe. It is exploratory only, based on a review of selected government and industry reports and data related to IT education and the profession. However, it argues that there is evidence to suggest that discourse related to information technology has the effect of excluding women and multi-disciplinary perspectives. On the one hand, there is consider-able evidence that the IT industry and skills it demands are multi-disciplinary and that many people working in the industry, particularly women, come from a variety of disciplines. On the other hand, despite the evidence of the multi-dimensional nature of IT, the impact of convergence, the importance of matching IT solutions to user needs and so on, a very narrow definition of IT dominates the discourse. This definition equates IT and IT professionals with computer science and engineering, disciplines which are predominately male. The result, then of this narrow definition is to marginalize women and their contributions. This is a pattern that has been observed with the development of other disciplines such as medicine. Not only does the narrowing of the definition of Information Technology tend to exclude and devalue the contribution of women but it also results in marginalization of other disciplines that would bring more “neutral” or “critical” perspectives to bear on technology. Thus the exclusion of multiple disciplines and women may contribute to poor technology decision-making at the societal and organizational level.

Keywords: Gender, Information Technology, Institutional Theory, Human Resources

States. Emphasis has been placed on expanding 1. THE IT SKILLS SHORTAGE AND THE

computer science, engineering and programming PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN

oriented educational programs. Some have noted that

one solution to current labour shortages would be to Much attention is paid to the evolution of the

increase the participation of women in IT (U.S. ‘information economy’ and the importance of

Department of Commerce, 1997). Consequently, ensuring an adequate supply of computer scientists

concerns have focused on the decline in female and engineers to fuel its growth. In many countries

enrolment in computer science and engineering attention has been focused on projected skills

courses at Canadian universities over the past five shortages - recent estimates suggest that Canada alone

years (Whittaker, 2000). Studies undertaken in a will face a shortage of 20,000 software workers during

number of countries have focused on the absence of the first few years of this century (HRDC, 1998). A

range of industry programs has been devised in women’s participation in disciplines such as

engineering and computer science and have examined response to this shortage in Canada and the United

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a wide range of contributing

POLICY AND SOCIAL IMPACTSfactors (University of Limerick, 1998; Trauth et. al. 2000, Turkle, 1995; CAEB, 1991; Frize and Deschenes, 1999; Fountain, TELECOMMUNICATIONS1999, Cukier, 1993). wirelesssatelliteTypically these have ATMcablefocused on the absence of

broadcastinginternetwomen in disciplines such

as engineering and computer digital mediaDESIGN AND APPLICATION sound recordingscience, the barriers to DEVELOPMENTAND USE

COMPUTINGCONTENTindustry (eg. retail, female participation and animationhospitality, health)hardwarefilm/videoways to increase the

function (eg. softwarepublishingparticipation of women in marketing,

accounting, HR)these disciplines. A few

have framed the gender gap in a different way suggesting that the fact that women are

not choosing these disciplines reflects on the disciplines not on women STRATEGY AND

MANAGEMENT(Wajcman, 1991;

O’Donoghue, 1995).

Figure 1. Integrated Model of IT (Cukier, 1998) Nevertheless, most of the

work to date, even by computer hardware, software and \"content\" is evident feminists, has accepted the prevailing idea that in the emerging technology infrastructure (i.e. the ‘information technology’ is virtually synonymous Internet), the applications (e.g. Web design) and the with engineering and computer science. industry itself (e.g. New multimedia corporations) (see Figure 1). Technology discourse shapes the ways in which technology is understood and enacted in organizations In addition, a number of government reports have Postman (1992, 11). The language of technology both stressed the critical need for new skill sets (e.g. reflects and shapes culture contributing to and Advisory Council on Science and Technology’s sustaining gender disparities in relations to Report of the Expert Panel on Skills, 1999; The participation and continued study of technology-Canadian E-business Roundtable Report, 2000; and

related fields (Hanson 1997, 1). The tendency to the Software Human Resources Council (SHRC) narrow technology, which includes practice, to “the Report, 1998). Each report emphasizes the importance technical bits,” has the effect of excluding critical of soft skills including content design and perspectives as well as women (Frey, 1989; Franklin, development, communications and interpersonal 1990). skills, and project management. 2. WHAT IS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY? Even mainstream computer science researchers have

WHO ARE IT PROFESSIONALS? started to question the scope of their discipline. As

Denning (2001) notes, while the roots of the discipline The growth of ‘convergence’, the ‘information were in math and electrical engineering, now the field highway’ and ‘ebusiness’ has emphasized the growing has grown into a much broader discipline and has overlap between telecommunication, computer shifted from technology focussed to human/user hardware/ software and ‘content’ in the new ‘digital centered. He also notes the limitations of the discipline economy’ (e.g. Tapscott, 1996) and the demand for including the lack of communication skills. Denning new skills and knowledge. A wide number of reports also calls for information technology to be defined as a and analysis of the ‘skills gap’ emphasize the growing profession rather than a discipline since IT professionals importance of “hybrid” workers who understand are now a much larger and more diverse group than just technology, but also know how to apply and manage computer scientists and engineers. He proposes a it. Many professionals who are not engineers or redefinition of the industry to include what he terms ‘IT computer scientists work in information technology specific disciplines, IT intensive disciplines, and IT sector jobs. The convergence of telecommunication, supportive occupations'.

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Table 1. IT Profession (Denning 2001, 16) IT-Specific IT-Intensive IT-Supportive Disciplines Disciplines Occupations Artificial intelligence Aerospace Computer Computer science engineering technician Computer Bioinformatics Help desk engineering Cognitive science technician Computational Digital library Network science science technician Database E-commerce Professional IT engineering

Financial services trainer

Computer graphics Genetic engineering Security specialist Human-computer Information science System interaction

Information systems administrator Network engineering Public policy and Web services Operating systems privacy

designer Performance Instructional design Web identity engineering Knowledge designer Robotics

engineering Database Scientific computing Management

administrator

Software architecture information systems Software engineering Multimedia design System security Telecommunications Transportation

3. GENDER AND DISCIPLINE: THE BIG

PICTURE

Although we might quibble about scope and where the boundaries begin and end, it is clear that a broadening of the definition of IT to reflect the current reality of the IT profession, would instantly result in greater female participation simply by increasing the number of women who are ‘counted.’ By including disciplines with higher levels of female participation rather than just computer science and electrical engineering, women are more fully represented. Our preliminary review of female participation in university programs, faculty, research institutes and the profession reflects this finding.

Generally, disciplines where the focus is on application of technology rather than ‘the technical bits’ have greater female participation. Research into gender and technology has suggested that whether it is automobiles or computers, women are less interested in the workings of technology and more interested in its application. Technology for technology’s sake, or ‘toys for boys’ phenomenon is gendered and has significant implications to the way in which technology is constructed and used (Coyle, 1996).

In some segments of the workforce and academic

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study related to IT, women are much better represented than in the disciplines of computer science and engineering. Certainly, many women who are not computer scientists and engineers define themselves as IT professionals. In general, women enter information systems management and multimedia programs in greater percentages than computer science and electrical engineering programs. These programs are perceived to be more people-oriented and more attuned to the uses of information technology, whereas computer science and computer engineering are more focused on the technology itself (CRA, 1998).

Library science, for example, which is arguably one of the most IT intensive (and critical) disciplines, is predominantly female. Despite the high levels of education and expertise (the norm is masters level education) this profession has tended to be marginalized in discussions of IT professionals.

Table 3: Gender by Program—Undergraduate Bachelor Degrees Conferred Undergraduate (USA)

1997/8 (IPEDS, 2000)

Male Female Total Electrical Engineering 11,410 1,585 12,995

88% 12%

Applied Computer 12,874 4,118 16,992 Science 76% 24% Business Management 44,510 42,426 86,936 and Administration 51% 49% (Commerce)

Mass Communication and 19,361 29,754 49,385 Communication 39% 60% Technologies Library/information 17 56 73 Science 23% 77%

This trend is also seen in terms of the gender split within the faculty of these same disciplines although men dominate faculty positions in all disciplines except library/information science.

Table 4: Gender by Program—Undergraduate Bachelor Degrees Conferred Undergraduate

(Canada) 1998 (AUCC, 1999)

Male Female Total Electrical Engineering 7,662 1,352 9,104

85% 15%

Applied Computer Science 13,848 3,677 17,525

79% 21%

Business Management and 29,660 28,063 57,723 Administration (Commerce) 51% 49% Mass Communication and 2,518 4,111 6,629 Communication Technologies 38% 62% Library Science 27 73 100

Journal of Information Systems Education, Vol 13(1)

27% 73% Table 5. Gender by Faculty (All ranks)—Canadian

Universities (AUCC, 1999)

Gender by Faculty 1999 Male Female TOTAL Electrical Engineering 557 31 588

95% 5%

Applied Computer 728 115 843 Science 86% 14% Business Admin. and 1,675 491 2,166 Mgmt.(Commerce) 77% 23% Mass Communications 145 67 212

68% 32%

Library/Information 27 40 67 Science 40% 60%

Gender imbalance is aggravated in research centers where IT is narrowly defined as computer science and electrical engineering in contrast to those which are multidisciplinary and focus on the application of technology, for example in education. In Canada, there is a network of centres of excellence funded by the federal government. The Canadian Institute for Telecommunications Research (CITR) Network of Centres of Excellence (NCE) defines interdisciplinary very narrowly – all its researchers are computer scientists and engineers. Only 6% of its board mem-bers are women (CITR, 2001). In contrast, the TeleLearning Network of Centres of Excellence (TL-NCE) which focuses on the application of technology to learning and incorporates a wide range of disci-plines has a governing board that is 50% female (TL-NCE, 2001).

Further research is needed into the background of IT professionals. Certainly, engineering and computer science graduates are overwhelmingly male. There are strong indications, however, that many women are working in the IT field (broadly defined) from a much broader range of disciplines. For example, Napier et. al, (2000) profiled 57 women who are “movers and shakers” in what is still a heavily male-dominated world of high technology. Few of the women profiled

Table 6. Wired Woman Membership Sample

Survey (2001)

Discipline Wired Women Members Engineering 0 Computer Science 9% Library Science 2%

Multimedia 27% Communications 15% IT Management 24% Business/Sales 15% Management

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Other 7%

studied computer science or engineering before entering the technology field. A great many had liberal and even performing arts backgrounds. Similarly, a recent survey of members of the “Wired Woman” association revealed that while the majority defined themselves as IT professionals (64%) only a fraction (11%) were computer scientists and none were engineers. Most respondents had non-traditional backgrounds. Most of their computer/IT skills were self-taught or attained though short courses.

4. DISCIPLINE AND GENDER: A CASE STUDY

The influence of gender on program choice is reflected in a survey of first year information technology-related programs at one Canadian University in 2000. The results revealed women accounted for 15% of students in computer science, 16% in electrical engineering, 35% in information technology management, 44% in new media and 56% in business management. Gender splits in faculty were similar (Cukier and Devine, 2001) (Tables 3 and 4).

One concrete case, that raises many questions, surrounds the revision of IT curriculum in the Faculty of Business and the creation of a new school, the School of Information Technology Management (Cukier, Devine, Pille, 1999). While other factors may have contributed, the revision of the curriculum involved the restructuring and merging of two programs - Administration and Information (AIM) on the one hand and Business Information Systems on the other.

The final curriculum was not substantially different than AIM. Certainly the positioning in the marketplace was different, but at the curriculum level it involved 3 basic changes. Most of the 41 courses required for graduation remained the same with a couple of exceptions:

- the addition of a compulsory programming

course

- the addition of a compulsory finance course

In addition, a higher-level math was added to the entry requirements.

In 1999, the first year of the new program and the last year of the AIM program, the math entry requirement was ‘preferred’ but not required. In that year, as in previous years, women remained the majority (58%) of the incoming AIM students but fell to 39% of the incoming ITM students. In the following year, when math became a requirement, female enrolment in the ITM program fell to 35% of the incoming ITM students.

Journal of Information Systems Education, Vol 13(1)

In light of these findings, more research into the relationship between the entry-level requirements for employment and performance would be fruitful. In Table 7. Gender by Program – e.g. Ryerson

addition, there may be value in revisiting assumptions University

regarding the predictors of success for academic 1999

programs as well as employment. Considerable Male Female Total Electrical Engineering 235 32 267

88% 12%

Applied Computer Science 195 40 235

83% 17%

Information Technology 186 118 304

Management 61% 39%

Administration and 47 65 112

Information Management 42% 58%

Business Management 241 244 485

50% 50%

New Media 22 25 47

47% 53%

2000

Male Female Total Electrical Engineering 217 42 259

84% 16%

Applied Computer Science 272 49 321

85% 15%

Information Technology 287 153 440 Management 65% 35% Administration and Information Management Business Management 205 261 466 44% 56% New Media 29 23 52 56% 44% At one level, the women accounted for a slightly smaller percentage of the tenure track faculty in the new school of ITM in 2001/2. Interestingly, while 6 of 7 female faculty members had PhDs completed or in progress compared to 5 of 10 male faculty members, only one had an undergraduate degree in computer science or engineering compared to 8 of their 10 male colleagues. Of the women, 3 of 7 have MBAs compared to 4 of 10 men. However, only 3 of the 7 women had higher-level high school math compared to the majority of their male colleagues. Currently a pilot project is being developed in the school to more fully examine the impact of the new requirements and possible interventions including alternative admission routes, bridging programs, female friendly pedagogical techniques and supports (Cukier and Shortt, 2001). 5. THE GLASS HOUSE: INVISIBLE BARRIERS TO ENTRY? 11

research has been done into systemic and institutional forms of discrimination, which are often unintentional, ‘taken-for-granted’ artifacts of institutionalized values, beliefs and behaviour such as the existence of requirements, which are not essential to performance and have the unintended consequence of excluding certain groups. For example, it is important to consider alternative routes to computing. “Respect multiple points of entry. Different children will encounter different entry points into computing – some through art, for example, some through design, some through mathematics. These multiple entry points need to be respected and encouraged, while we remain sensitive to activities and perspectives that are

appealing to girls and young women” (AAUW, 2000).

In addition, there may be merit in further examining

the almost sacrosanct assumption that math is an

essential requirement or predictor of performance in

IT programs and careers. This concept of course has

been reinforced by the assumption that IT is synonymous with computer science and engineering. Considerable research has been conducted into differences in male and female attitudes to mathematics in terms of proficiency, preference,

(AAUW, 1991) confidence, (Toronto Board of

Education, 1996), as well as female friendly

pedagogical approaches (AAUW, 1991). “All

students’ enthusiasm for mathematics declines as they get older, but the loss of interest among girls is significantly greater. The percentage of girls who like mathematics drops 20 points to 61 percent by high school. The number of boys drops 12 points to 72 percent. And the gap between girls and boys who like mathematics increases 3 points to 11 points” (AAUW, 1991). The issue of mathematics proficiency as the principal indicator of success in information technology academic programs is one area for further exploration. 6. THE EFFECTS OF NARROW DEFINITIONS OF IT There is strong evidence that a broad range of skills are needed in the IT industry and that IT professionals include a wide range of disciplines. However, much of the discourse regarding ‘information technology’ still equates IT with computer science and electrical engineering, all of which tend to be male dominated.

This has the effect of reinforcing and perpetrating the

exclusion of women. We can draw evidence of this

Journal of Information Systems Education, Vol 13(1)

from industry hiring practices, government allocation of funds and in the way IT careers are promoted. Further research is needed but anecdotal evidence suggests the following:

There is evidence of a tension in the discourse between studies that emphasize the need for broad and integrated perspectives for the industry and successful application of the technology on the one hand and the persistent definitions that reinforce narrow and traditional definitions of information technology on the other. For example, the Advisory Council on Science and Technology’s Report on the Expert Panel Hi-tech companies, dominated by computer scientists and engineers, perpetrate the practice of hiring in their own image and not matching skill set to job requirements. Despite clear evidence that graduates of many technology-related disciplines have the necessary skills and do succeed in the sector, there is clear bias towards hiring from traditional (and also male dominated) disciplines. While evidence suggests that math is an indicator but not the only predictor of success in IT careers, and indeed some have maintained that facility with languages is a better predictor of programming skills than math intensive on Skills recognizes the need for a multidisciplinary approach to IT, but still defines IT as computer science and engineering (1999).

Further examination of the ways in which the discourse is reproduced is required, but there is some evidence to suggest that the definitions determine who is included and excluded in the discussions of policy processes, which in turn, reinforce traditional definitions and institutionalized practices. Traditional technology companies, engineers, and computer scientists are dominant in associations and government boards designed to select specialists to develop policies related to ‘information technology’. They are also, as a result, predominantly male. For example, the Canadian Advanced Technology Association’s board is 96% male (CATA, 2001) and the Information Technology Association of Canada’s Board of Directors is 87% male (ITAC, 2001).

Traditional computer science and engineering educational programs are the programs targeted for additional government support. Although disciplines such as library/information science, communications and multimedia are highly relevant to the development and implementation of information systems (and are more gender balanced) they are seldom included in discussions. For example, in Canada, the recent Access to Opportunities Program (ATOP) which funneled $150 million over 3 years into Ontario universities to address the skills shortage in IT focused primarily on computer science and electrical engineering and other programming related programs. There was no consideration of other disciplines or attention to the gender dimensions (Ontario Ministry of Education and Training, 1998). Similarly, funding for research centres is heavily oriented towards traditional technology disciplines. While the guidelines for these programs emphasize the importance of human resources development, their definition of interdisciplinary is often computer science and engineering and no consideration is given to gender (SSHRC/NSERC, Centre of Excellence Evaluation Guidelines, 1996).

programs, which women less often choose, are favoured. The assumption is that soft skills (communication, project management, user needs assessment, etc.) are easily learned on the job. Other approaches, for example, selecting for soft skills and providing support or retraining for learning the other skills are seldom considered.

Industry programs aimed at encouraging women to enter IT focus almost exclusively on computer science and engineering despite evidence that individuals with other backgrounds have demonstrated success (IBM Diversity, IBM Canada, 1998).

Many women working in systems analysis and design, systems development, sales and marketing jobs in the hi-tech sector are neither computer scientists nor engineers. Some report experiencing discriminatory work practices as a result not just of being women but also by not being engineers or computer scientists (Wired Woman Survey, 2001).

7. IMPLICATIONS

This paper suggests that defining Information Technology as synonymous with computer science and engineering, has the effect of marginalizing women who already work, study and research in the IT field and has potential implications for government policy, the industry, educational institutions, research and practice. While the paper is exploratory in nature – implications of this perspective on gender and IT are potentially quite broad and global in scope.

First, broadening the definition of IT has implications for addressing the issue of the ‘skills gap’ identified as a significant challenge to the information technology industry nationally and globally. The growth in the Information Technology sector has been so profound that worldwide demand for people who can design, develop and manage information technology far exceeds the current supply. More empirical research is needed to examine qualifications of those working in the IT profession and studying in IT related disciplines. We need to examine more fully

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implications of definition as it impacts gender. As well, revisiting fundamental assumptions regarding skills needed for success, sources of those skills and innovative approaches to education, recruitment and training, will not only address the needs of the industry but also equity in academe and the profession. More work on exploring fundamental skills needed for the high demand IT jobs, sources of those skills, training and development, and hiring practices would be fruitful.

Second, effects of the dominant and narrow definition of information technology which excludes Others are often made to feel unable (unqualified) to provide a critique, to question, or to resist because their perspective is undervalued. It has also been suggested for example, that a more female-influenced industry might also better respond to consumers’ needs. Technology would be easier to understand and ‘friendlier’ products could also reduce business costs as less money might be spent on tech support (the workers who answer customers’ questions about puzzling products and services) (Geewax, 2000). More research on the impact of crossing discipline and gender balance on the systems development process multidisciplinary perspectives and women from decision making may actually result in poor technology decision making at the societal and organizational level (Cukier and Bauer, 2000). Not only does this marginalize women who often have played bridging roles between technology and applications, but it also tends to exclude the disciplines most likely to examine technology impacts and unintended consequences. In the context of information technology, it is understood that the failure to take ‘practice’ or ‘user needs’ adequately into account is at the root of many systems failures (Lucas, 1999) and may be linked to some current problems associated with the ‘productivity paradox’. There is also ample evidence of the prevalence of a ‘supply fix’ mentality or technology for technology's sake orientation underlying deployment of information technology rather than any effective critique. This is manifest within organizations and in technology marketing and government policy formulation (Menzies, 1989). Further gendered analysis of the definition of information technology and the implications for policy and practice will add to this discussion.

We may also speculate about the effects of this ‘tunnel vision’ at the organizational level. Traditional systems development life cycle analysis rests heavily on activities such as user needs assessment that requires a broad range of skill and cost/benefit analysis which is predicated on the assumption of ‘objective’ assessment of technology. In addition, virtually every study of human resources requirements in the information technology sector places emphasis on broad skills. However, despite lip service paid to the importance of incorporating users into systems development, there is much evidence that their views are devalued. ‘Users’ are viewed as just another input to the system and their involvement often treated as a necessary evil rather than a source of valued insight (Joshi, 1991) and that the technological imperative dominates decision making related to technology (Cukier and Bauer, 2000). Within organizations, computer scientists and engineers often control decisions regarding the deployment of technology.

would also be a fruitful area to explore.

8. REFERENCES

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AAUW Study, February 1991, “Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America

Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC) Statistics Canada data, 1999.

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Canada, Human Resources Development Canada (HRDC), Essential Skills Profile: Software Workers, 1998.

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Canada, Software Human Resources Council (SHRC), Sectoral Partnership Initiative, 1998.

Canada, TeleLearning-Network of Centres of Excellence (TL-NCE), www.telelearn.ca 2001. Canadian Association of Engineers Board (CAEB). More than Just Numbers. Ottawa, 1991.

Canadian E-Business Roundtable, “Fast forward: Accelerating Canada’s Leadership in the Internet Economy,” January 2000.

Canadian Institute for Telecommunications Research, http://www.citr.ece.mcgill.ca/english/citr.html 2001.

Canadian Advanced Technology Association, (CATA), www.cata.ca 2001.

Computing Research Association (CRA). Report on The Supply of Information Technology Workers in the United States, 1998.

Cuker, W., Devine, I. And Pille, P. Information Technology Management: Developing an Integrated Curriculum in the Canadian Context,

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for Information Systems Education (ISECON), Chicago Illinois , 1999.

Cukier, W. and I. Devine. “Information Technology and Women’s Participation: A Critical Perspective on IT Paradigms,” Administrative Sciences Association of Canada Annual Conference (ASAC), London, Ontario, May 2001.

Cukier, W. and D. Shortt. Proposal for the Women in IT Institute, 2001.

Cuker, W. and Bauer R. \"Linking Societal Discourse and Organizational Decision-making on Technology Enabled Learning: Applying O’Donoghue, M. Daring to go where few have gone before; choosing to ‘do’ Engineering, are there gender implications? Limerick: University of Limerick, 1995.

Ontario Ministry of Education and Training. \"Thousands of new student spaces to be created.\" Access to Opportunities Program www.edu.gov. on.ca/ eng/document/nr/98.05/tech.html. 1998. Postman, N. Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Knopf, 1992.

Spender, D. Nattering on the Net: Women, Power and Cyberspace. North Melbourne: Spinifex, 1995.

Habermasian Communicative Rationality to Textual Analysis,\" Shared Interest Track, Academy of Management, August, 2000.

Cukier, W. Equity “Curriculum for Engineering Students: A Pilot Project,” Gender and Science and Technology 7, Waterloo, 1993.

Coyle, K. “How Hard Can it Be?” In, L.Cherny and E. Reba Weise (ed.), Wired Women: Gender and new Realities in Cyberspace. Seattle: Seal press, 1996, 42-55.

Denning, P. “The Profession of IT: Who Are We?” Communications of the ACM, 44 (2), 2001, 15-18. Fountain, J., \"Constructing the Information Society: The University, Gender, and Technology,\" Re-Organizing Knowledge, Amherst, 1999.

Franklin, U. The Real World of Technology. Concord: Anansi, 1990.

Frey, R. “A Philosophical Framework for Understanding Technology,” Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 27 (1), 1998, 23-35.

Frize, M. and C. Deschênes. A Unique National

Project to Increase the Participation of Women in Science and Engineering. Ottawa: Canadian Women in Science and Engineering, 1999.

Geewax, M. “If Women Ruled…. Female Techies Imagine a World,” The Atlanta Journal, August 27, 2000, D1.

Hanson, K. “Gender, Discourse and Technology,” Center for Equity and Diversity Working Paper 5, Newton, MA: Education Development Center, Inc., 1997.

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Information Technology Association of Canada (ITAC), www.itac.ca 2001.

Joshi, K. \"A Model of User's Perspective on Change: the Case of Information Systems Technology Implementation,\" MISQ, 15 (2) 1991, 229-242

Lucas, H. Information Technology and the Productivity Paradox, Oxford University Press, New York, 1999.

Menzies, H. Fast Forward: Out of Control. Toronto: MacMillan, 1989.

Napier, J., D. Shortt, and E. Smith. Technology with Curves: Women Reshaping the Digital Landscape. Toronto: Harper Collins, 2000.

Tapscott, D., The Digital Economy, Toronto: McGraw-Hill, 1996.

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Trauth, E., S. Neilsen, L.von Hellnes, “Explaining the IT Gender Gap: Australian Stories,” Australian Conference on Information Technology, December, 2000.

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University of Limerick, Barriers for Women in Computing, www.ul.ie/govsoc/barrierstw.html 1998

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AUTHORS BIOGRAPHIES

Wendy Cukier, Professor in the School of

Information Technology Management, Ryerson University. Since joining Ryerson in 1986 Wendy has been involved in a wide range of curricular development projects including a Certificate in Telecommuni-cations, a new curriculum for a BCom in

Information Technology Management, a joint graduate program in Culture and Communications with York University and a proposal for a Digital Learning Environment for ITM. She was a founding

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member of Ryerson's women in Engineering Committee and has led the development of a range of initiatives related to Women in IT. In 1998 she received the Ryersonian of the Year Award from the Faculty Association for her contributions to the University and in 2000 she received the student association's SHERO award. She has published more than 200 articles and is a contributing editor to the Globe and Mail Report on Business where she writes on trends in telecommunications, e-commerce and hi-tech start-ups. She holds an MA and an MBA from the University of Toronto and is completing a PhD in Technology from Harvard University.

Irene Devine, Associate Dean, Faculty of Communi-cation & Design, Ryerson University and past Direc-tor of Ryerson’s School of Information Technology Management. Irene holds a Ph.D. from Case Western Reserve University, Cleve-land, Ohio. She has an active research agenda. Management Science at York University where her thesis focuses on the costs and benefits of technology-enabled learning with an emphasis on laptop computing. Her other awards include an honorary docteur d’Universite from Laval University, an honorary LLD from Concordia University and the Governor General’s Meritorious Service Cross (civilian division). The University of Toronto has named her one of the 100 alumni who shaped the century.

Denise Shortt, Research Associate in the School of

Information Technology Management, Ryerson University. Denise recently co-authored, Technology with Curves: Women Reshaping the Digital Landscape (HarperCollins, 2000) and contributed to a business anthology entitled, From the Trenches:

Strategies from Industry Leaders on the New e-Economy (Wiley, 2001). She is also a founding member of the education and advocacy organization, the Wired Woman Society. Denise holds a M.Ed. in

Along with two colleagues, she received the best paper

of the year 2000 award from MCB Press for an article published in the Journal of Managerial Psychology. She has co-authored a series of human services books for the not-for-profit sector, published papers in academic and practitioner journals and presented academic papers at international conferences.

.

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