Arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign and what it relates to in reality. Dog, look like or sound like a dog
Assimilation: a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phonetically similar to a neighboring sound, eg, a vowel becomes[+nasal] when followed by a []consonant.
Competence: the knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formal abstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual use. Ie, performance
Componential analysis: an approach to the study of the meaning which analyzes a word into a set of meaning components or semantic features. Ig, boy[+human] [+male] [-adult]
Diachronic: studying linguistic change over time in contrast to looking at language as it is used at a given moment.
Duality: the way meaningless elements of language at one level combine to form meaningful units at another level.
Entailment: the relationship between 2 sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. he assassinated mary and mary is dead.
Hyponymy: the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where a more particular term is included in the more general one. E.g. X is a Y.a beech is a tree
Ideational function: the use of language as a means of giving structure to our experience of the real or the imaginary world. Interpersonal function: the use of language for maintaining social role and interacting with second-person others
Intonation: the variation in pitch and stress which gives beat and rhythm to the tune the voice plays in ordinary speech. Morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carries meaning or serves a grammatical function.
Performance: Chomsky`s term for actual language behavior as distinct from the knowledge that underlines it, or competence. Phoneme: the abstract element of a sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.
Phonology: the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.
Presupposition : implicit assumptions about the world required to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate e.g. some tea
have already been taken is a …of …
Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone. Synchronic： studying language and speech as they are used at a given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.
Synonymy: the sense relations of equivalence of meaning between lexical items . e.g. small/little
Textual function: to create written or spoken texts which cohere within themselves and which fit the particular situation in which they are used.
Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations Subordinate constructions:E.g. raw meat Coordinate constructions: E.g. meat and fish
Features of compounds
Form- compounds can be written solid (outbreak),
hyphenated (town-bred) and open (tear gas)
Part of speech- A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, a verb, a noun or an adjective. eg. bad-mouth
Meaning- Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. The meaning cannot be easily inferred from the two components of the compounds. eg. a green hand Stress- In compounds, the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.
• prescriptive—Traditional Grammar taught to learners of a language is basically prescriptive. It tells the reader “how they should say”—laying down rules for “correct” behavior • descriptive –describes and analyzes the language people are currently speaking. It deals with “what people actually say”
• langue—abstract systems shared by all members of a speech community
• parole—the realization of langue in actual use • competence—learner’s knowledge of a language
• performance—the actual realization of the knowledge in
real linguistic communication
(1) English phonemes(音素)(Classification of English Vowels(20) and Consonants(28): ) Front Vowels: / i:, i , e, æ/; Back vowels:/a:, o, o:, u, u: / Central vowels: / v, ə, ə:/
Diphthongs : / ei, ai, oi, iə, εə, uə, əu, au /; Plosive consonants: / p, b, t, d, k, g/
Fricative consonants: / f, v;θ, th; s, z; sh, ij; r, h / Affricate consonants: /tsh, dij; tr, dr; ts, dz/ Nasal consonants: /m, n, ng/ Lateral conaonants: / l/ Semi-vowels: /w, j/
Contextualism Behaviorism Mentalism
35.Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?
35. Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be
formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.
If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.
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