the value of failing in career development

Thevalueoffailingincareerdevelopment:achaostheoryperspective

RobertG.L.Pryor•JamesE.H.Bright

Received:16November2010/Accepted:12April2011/Publishedonline:3May2011ÓSpringerScience+BusinessMediaB.V.2011

AbstractFailingisaneglectedtopicincareerdevelopmenttheoryandcounsel-lingpractice.Mosttheoriesseefailingassimplytheoppositeofsuccessandsomethingtobeavoided.ItiscontendedthattheChaosTheoryofCareerswithitsemphasisoncomplexity,uncertaintyandconsequenthumanimitations,providesaconceptuallycoherentaccountoffailureincareerdevelopment.Thebenefitsoffailingareoutlined.Thecounsellingimplicationsoffailureandwaysforittobeaddressedandutilisedwiththoseconfrontingcareerdevelopmentchallengesarealsodiscussed.

´sume´.Lavaleurdel’e´checdanslede´veloppementvocationnel:uneRe

´checestunsujetne´glige´danslesthe´ories´orieduchaos.L’eperspectivedelathe

´veloppementvocationnelainsiquedanslapratiqueduconseil.Laplupartdesdude

´oriesvoientl’e´checsimplementcommel’oppose´dusucce`setcommequelquethe

`e´viter.Ilestsoutenuquela«the´orieduchaosdescarrie`res»,avecsonchosea

´,l’incertitudeet,parconse´quent,leslimiteshumaines,insistancesurlacomplexite

´rentdel’e´checdansledomainedude´veloppementfournituncadreconceptuelcohe

´ne´ficesdel’e´checsontde´crits.Lesimplicationsdel’e´checpourvocationnel.Lesbe

leconseilainsiquelesmoyensdel’aborderetdel’utiliseravecunepopulation

´ea`desde´fislie´sa`sonde´veloppementvocationnelseronte´galementconfronte´s.discute

Zusammenfassung.DerWertdesScheiternsinderberuflichenEntwicklung:

¨ssigtesThemainderEineChaos-Theorie-Perspektive.Scheiternisteinvernachla

TheoriederberuflichenEntwicklungundBeratungspraxis.DiemeistenTheoriensehenScheiterneinfachalsdasGegenteilvonErfolgundalsetwas,daseszuvermeidengilt.Eswirdbehauptet,dassdieChaos-TheoriederLaufbahnentwicklung

R.G.L.Pryor(&)ÁJ.E.H.Bright

AustralianCatholicUniversity,Sydney,Australiae-mail:congruence@wr.com.au

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¨t,UnsicherheitunddendarausresultierendenmitihrerBetonungderKomplexita

¨renteDarstellungdesScheiternsinmenschlichenGrenzen,einekonzeptionellkoha

derberuflichenEntwicklungbietet.DieVorteiledesScheiternswerdenskizziert.Die

¨glichkeiten,wiesiebeijenen,¨rdieBeratungsowieMoImplikationendesScheiternsfu

welchemitHerausforderungeninderLaufbahnentwicklungkonfrontiertsind,

¨nnen,werdenebenfallsdiskutiert.angegangenundgenutztwerdenko

Resumen.ElValordelFracasoenelDesarrollodelaCarrera:Laperspectiva

´aypra´cticadela´adelcaos.Elfracasoesuntemadesatendidoenlateorıdelateorı

´nparalacarrera.Lamayorı´adelasteorı´asconsideranelfracasocomoorientacio

´xitoyqueportantodebeserevitado.SeafirmaquelaTeorı´adelalgoopuestoale

´nfasisenlacomplejidad,incertidumbreyenconsecuenciaenlasCaos,consue

´nconceptualmentecoherentelimitacioneshumanas,proporcionaunaexplicacio

sobreelfracasoeneldesarrollodelacarrera.Sedelimitanlosbeneficiosdel

´n,asicomolasformasenfracaso,yseanalizansusimplicacionesparalaorientacio

lasquesepuedeabordaryutilizar,teniendoencuentalosretosalosqueseenfrentaeldesarrollodelacarrera.Keywords

FailingÁChaostheoryÁCounselling

Mostofthetime,themajorityofpeoplewanttobesuccessful.Somecravesuccessandworktowardit.Oftenindividualswantotherstothinkofthemassuccessfulandwanttothinkofthemselvesashavingsuccess.Ourmediacelebratesthefamouslysuccessful.Insportwhatiswantedisawinningteam.Inbusinessthosewhohavebecomepowerfulandrichareoftenrevered.Inacademia,atconferencesparticipantsflocktoheartheideasofthosewhomaprofessionacknowledgesasbeingsuccessfulincontributingtoaparticularfieldofhumanendeavour.Theobversetothisdesireforsuccessisalsolikelytothefearoffailure.Evenifeveryonecannotbemonumentallysuccessfulattheveryleast,mostpeople,mostofthetime,arelikelytothinkthatfailureshouldbeavoided.Failureisoftenassociatedwithfeelingdisgraced,diminished,disillusioned,discouraged,debilitatedandde-motivated(Buzan,2005).Formanyself-esteemplummets,initiativeevaporates,confidencewaversandvisionfalters.Itistemptingtothinkthatothersmayseesuchpersonsasuseless,inadequate,irresponsible,unrealisticandhopeless.Indeedtheexperienceoffailuremaymakepeoplecynical,tentative,reactive,defensive,pessimistic,riskaverse,angryanddepressed.

Inthecareerdevelopmentliteraturereaderswillstruggletofindmuchattentiondevotedtofailure.Aselsewhereitissuccessonwhichcareerdevelopmentprofessionalsfocus.Derr(1986)definedcareersuccessintermsofachievinggoalssuchasgettingahead,gettingsecure,gettinghigh,gettingfreeandgettingbalanced.Aquickscanoftheindexofthe‘‘EncyclopediaofCareerDevelopment’’(Greenhaus&Callanan,2006)reveals21referencesto‘‘careersuccess’’oritsequivalentbutnoneto‘‘failure’’,‘‘errors’’or‘‘mistakes’’.Furtherthereisaplethoraofpublicationsintheprofessionalandself-helpliteraturewhichpromiseinteralia,careersuccess,

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thejobyoualwayswanted,thealignmentofworkandpurpose,gettingtheworkyoulove,lovingtheworkyoudoandfindingfulfilmentthroughwork.Itappearsthatnoclientandnocareerscounsellor,wantstoknowaboutfailure.

Theproblemwiththisisthatfailureisverymuchapartofourworld.Over99%ofallspecieswhichhaveexistedonearthareextinct(Kauffman,1995).Veryfewofoureconomicpredictionsareeveraccurate(Taleb,2007).‘‘Itisfailurerathersuccesswhichisthedistinguishingfeatureofcorporatelife…Mostfirmsfail’’(Ormerod,2005,pp.12,15).Indeedoneofthemajorreasonswhyadultsseekcareercounsellingisbecausetheyfeelthattheirowneffortsatcareerdevelopmenthavefailedinsomemeasureandthattheythereforeneedassistance.

Whilethereasonsforparticularfailuresmaybespecifictoauniquesetofcircumstances,wheninvestigatorshavesoughttoinducemoregeneralinsightsintothenatureoffailure,oneconclusionfrequentlyisreached(Ormerod,2005;Heath,2009;Young,2002).Complexityistoblame.ThusOrmerod(2005)concludes,Itisthesheercomplexityassociatedwithmanydecisionsthatdefiestheorderlyapplicationofrationalcalculations….(p.124).and

Humans,whetheractingasindividualsorinacollectivefashioninafirmorgovernment,facemassiveinherentuncertaintyabouttheeffectoftheiractions…(our)abilitytounderstandsuch(complex)environmentsisinherentlylimited….Thisiswhythingsfail(p.221).

Atthispointitcanbeasked,cananytheoryofcareerdevelopmentincorporatecomplexityanditsinherentfailureandalsoprovideinsightsintohowfailuremightbeabletobeunderstoodandutilisedincareercounselling?Formostconceptu-alisationsofcareerdevelopmentfailure,ifitisgivenmuchattentionatall,ismostoftenconsideredsimplyastheoppositeofsuccess.SoformatchingtheorieslikeHolland(1997)failureisamisfitofthepersonandtheoccupation;fordevelopmentaltheorieslikeSuper(1980)failureisequatedwithcareerimmaturity;forconstructivisttheorieslikeSavickas(1995,2005)failureisafeltinabilitytomove;foractiontheories(Krumboltz,2009)failureisanunwillingnesstoact.Thispapercontendsthatonlyanapproachwhichincorporateschaostheorytocareerdevelopmentcareerswithitsemphasisoncomplexityanditsconsequentinherentunpredictability,canprovideacoherenttheoreticalframeworkforappropriatelyincorporatingfailureandprovidingnotonlysomesolutionstofailureperceivedasaproblembutalsotoreconceptualisefailureasamorepositivecareerdevelopmentoutcome.

PryorandBright’sChaosTheoryofCareers

Severalwritershavesoughttoapplychaostheorytocareerdevelopmentincludinginteralia,Brack,Brack,andZucker(1995),Riverin-Simard(1996),Gluck(1997),Gibb(1998),Amherdt(1999),Duffy(2000)andBloch(2005).However,todatetheChaosTheoryofCareersrepresentsthemostsystematic,sustained,broadly

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researchedandevaluatedapplicationofchaostheorytocareerdevelopment(e.g.Bright&Pryor,2005;Pryor&Bright,2003a,b,2004,2007,2011).TheChaosTheoryofCareers(CTC)understandsrealityintermsofcomplexdynamicalsystems.Itcharacterisesrealityasmulti-dimensional.Itismulti-causal,andmulti-influenced.Thusrealityiscomplexandweshouldexpecttofailquiteregularlywhennavigatingsuchcomplexity.Realityischaracterisedasadynamicalsystembecauseitiscontinuallychanging.AccordingtotheCTC,sometimesthischangecanbenon-linear,meaningthatcausescanhavedisproportionaleffects(Strogatz,2003).Thisaddsanotherlayerofcomplexitytotheworldinwhichweact,andalsoexponentiallyincreasesthelikelihoodthatwewillfailtobeabletoforeseeorpredicttheconsequencesofmanyoractionsandchoices.Hencefailureisaninherentconsequenceofthecomplexityofreality.

IntermsoftheCTCtheworldisalsoconstruedassystemic.Thereforeeverythingislinkedultimatelytoeverythingelse(Barabasi,2003).Thismeansthateverythinghasthepotentialtoinfluenceandbeinfluencedbyeverythingelseinthesystem.Thisfurtheraddstothecomplexityofreality,becauseitmeansthatrealitycontainsanimpossiblylargenumberofcontingenciesandinter-relationshipsthataresubjecttocontinuousandpotentiallynon-linearchange.ThecombinatorialexplosionofdifferentpossiblestatesofthesystemcanbeappreciatedbyconsideringthepopularRubik’scubepuzzle,whereeachfaceofthecubeisdifferentlycolouredandmadeupofninesmallercubes,eachofwhichcanberotated.Thereareapproximatelyforty-threequintilliondifferentarrangementsofthiscube!Consequentlytheinter-connectednatureofrealityprecludesusfromsystematicallycalculatingallthepossibleoutcomesinadvance,andthereforeprofoundlycircumscribesourabilitytoplan,predictandcontrol.Theresultisthatfailuremustbeconsideredaninevitableconsequenceofthiscomplexity.

Althoughcomplexdynamicalsystemshavesomanypossiblestatestheyareineffectonlypredictableinaverylimitedsenseandforalimitedtimehorizon,theyalsodemonstrateaperiodicity—thetendencytofollowaself-similarpatternovertime,albeitapatternthatdoesnotexactlyrepeat.Thereforeoutofallofthiscomplexityemergesaself-similarpatternoffunctioningcalled‘‘dynamicstability’’.Thesesystemsareboundedandthereforelimited,buttheseboundariesarepermeable.Considerourownbodiesassystemsthatarecomplex,everychangingandlimited.Wehaveaveryclearsenseofthephysicallimitsofourbodies,howevertheyaresufficientlyopentomakethemvulnerabletoinfection.Complexdynamicalsystemsarethereforecomprisedofpatternandorder,butalsouncertainty,surprise,andthepotentialfordisorder.

Realityisthereforeconstruedasinherentlyuncertain,andthisuncertaintyexposesourlimitationsintermsofknowledgeandpersonalcontrol.Itisnotpossible,inprinciple,toknoweverythingaboutapotentialsituationbecauseitistoocomplexandtoochangeable.Althoughhumansmightstrivetounderstandallofthemostplausiblyrelevantfactorsinasituation,thephenomenonofnon-linearitymeansthatamongsttheseeminglytrivialandunexploredfactorsmaylurkonethatcouldcreatedisproportionateandunanticipatedchange(Taleb,2007).Thismeansthatfailureshouldbeaperpetualconsiderationeveninthebestplannedandstrictlycontrolledcircumstances.Effortsatreducingitslikelihoodareusefulbuttheyare

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notnecessarilyalwaysgoingtobeenoughtoensurethatfailuredoesnotoccur.Aswellindividualsalsoneedtoacceptpositivelythepossibilityoffailureandtolookatwaystoderivebenefitfromitsconsequencesandseektodevisefurtherwaystoutiliseitandprogressbeyondthefailedcircumstancesinwhichtheybecomeenmeshed.

Benefitsoffailure

Giventheinevitabilityoffailurewithinacomplexdynamicalsystem,itiscomfortingtoacknowledgethatfailurebringswithitmanygifts.Fourmajorbenefitsoffailingareoutlinedwhichcanhelpindividualsinthecareercounsellingcontexttonegotiatetheuncertaintiesinherentinacomplex,interconnectedandchangingworldofwork.Anopportunitytolearn

Themostoft-quotedbenefitoffailureislearning.ForinstanceSenge(1990)wrote‘‘failureisanopportunityforlearning—aboutinaccuratepicturesofcurrentreality’’(p.1).SengecitesthefounderandCEOofthePolaroidfilminstantphotographycompanywhohadaplaqueonhisofficewallthatreads‘‘Amistakeisanevent,thefullbenefitofwhichhasnotyetbeenturnedtoyouradvantage’’(p.1).

Failurecanhelpbothcounsellorsandtheirclientstoappreciateandacceptthecontingencyofourlivesandcircumstances.AccordingtotheCTC,mistakesareinevitableandthereforeshouldnotbeinternalisedasindicationsofloweredself-worthorinability,somuchassimplypartofthewaytheworldworks(Rescher,1995).Oftenweundervaluethebenefitsofknowingwhatdoesnotwork.Thisisoneofthereasonswhyitishardtogetresearchpublishedwhichconfirmsthenullhypothesis.However,knowingwhatwecannotdoisthefirststeptounderstandingourlimitations,acceptingthemwithoutbeingimprisonedbythem.Encouragingcreativity

Theupsideofuncertaintyinacomplexlychangingworldofworkistheopportunityitaffordsforcreativeresponsestothechallengesofcareerdevelopment.However,creativitytechniquessuchasbrainstormingworkonthebasisofgeneratingideaswithoutevaluating,thatis,bytoleratingthepossibilityandeventhelikelihoodoffailure.However,asAriely(2008)notesthewaytohavegoodideasistohavelotsofideas.Thatisbecausemostideasdonotwork,thatis,theyfail.However,theprocessofgeneratingideaswithoutbeingconstrainedbythesenseoffailurecanbefundamentaltodiscoveringthenewideawhichwillwork.Buildsstrategy

Whenindividualscanallowthemselvesthepossibilityoffailuretheyareenabledtoexplorepossibilitiesthattheymightotherwiseimmediatelydismissasimpossible,

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impracticalorimplacable.Acceptingthevalueoffailuremayallowadeeperrealitytesttobeundertakeninwhichourunderstandingofourselves,othersandourworldmaydevelop,inwhichindividualscangainconfidenceinnegotiatingtheunknownoruncertainandtofacefearsabouttheconsequencesofactinginsuchcircumstances.Inthissenserecognisingfailureratherfleeingfromit,canbeamajorsteptomovingbothcounsellorsandclientsoutoftheirrespective‘‘comfortzones’’.

Personal/spiritualdevelopment

Experiencingfailurecanhavetheadvantageofhelpingpeopletounderstandmoreaboutthemselvesandtheirworld.Itcanassistindemarcatingwhatindividualscanchangeandwhattheycannotchange.Oneofthefrustrationstowhichindividualsoftensubjectthemselvesisanxietyoverthingsoverwhichtheyhavenocontrolwhichmaycausetheirbestlaidplanstofounder.Apersonmaybeapplyingtoaspecifictertiaryteachinginstitutionthattheyhavetheirheartsetonandfailtheentrystandarddespitehavingachievedclosetotheirpotentialduetounusuallyhighdemandforthatparticularcourseand/orthatparticularinstitutionatthatparticulartime.Similarlytheapplicantwhobelievesthattheyhavefoundthe‘‘perfectjob’’forthemonlytoseethepositiongotoanother,cancometounderstandthatwhiletheymighthavebeenableandmotivatedtodotheworkthattheremighthavebeenseveralotherswhoweresimilarlyattractiveandhadanadvantagethatthisapplicantdidnothave.Fromsuchexperienceswecanlearnthatwedonotcontroleverythingandthatlifewillnotalwaysbefair.Iffailureisappreciated,suchexperiencesmayteachlessonsofhumilityintermsofclaimsaboutcontrolandchallengeustogreaterresilienceandadaptability.

TheCTC’simplicationsoffailureforcareercounselling

ThroughtheChaosTheoryofCareers(CTC)careercounsellorsandtheirclientscangainnewperspectivesonboththeprospectandtheexperienceoffailure.Thefollowingaresomeofthewaysinwhichthiscanbeachieved.Normalisingfailure

Chen(2005)suggestedthatcareercounsellorswouldbeadvisedtonormalisetherealityofchanceincareerdevelopmentthroughcounselling.Anecessarycorollaryofthisisthatcareerscounsellorsmustalsonormalisefailuresinceimplicitintheconceptofchance,isuncertaintyandthereforethepossibilityoffailure.Thereforefailureshouldnotbetheoutcome‘‘thatdaresnotspeakitsname’’incounselling.Rather,itshouldbeacceptedanddiscussedasareasonableandpossibleoutcomeinanuncertainandcomplicatedworld.Infact,toomittodosoisactuallytodoclientsamajordisserviceakintothatidentifiedbyKrumboltz(1998).

AccordingtotheCTC,normalisingfailureinvolvesassistingclientstorecognizethatfailureissimplyaninevitablepartofhumanlifeandexperience.Itisusually

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lessdesirablethansuccessbutthereisnothingparticularlybadorshamefulaboutit.Failuretypicallymeansthatthepersontriedsomethingnew.Theywerewillingtotakearisk.Thistimeitdidnotworkbutthatisnottheendoftheworld:peoplefailallthetime(Ormerod,2005).

Oftenprogressischaracterizedas‘‘twostepsforwardandoneback’’.Thisadagerecognizesthatsuccessisnotnecessarilyeitherlinearorcontinuous.Someclientscanbecomediscouragedbythe‘‘onestepback’’whichidentifiesfailure.Thevalueoftheprogressformulationisthatitidentifiesfailureasintegraltosuccess.Moreover,thefactthatclientsfailinthisprocessisevidencethattheyaremeetinggenuinechallenges,extendingthemselvesanddevelopingnewcapacitiesandinsights.Ifsomeone’scareerdevelopmentprogressisjust‘‘threestepsforwardandnoneback’’,itsuggeststhepossibilitythatsuchclientsmaybeonlyfacingtasksthatareeasy,perhapstooeasyforthemtogrowanddevelopascareerdecisionmakersandevenasindividuals.Infacingsetbackswhicharesometimesinterpretedasfailuresitmaybeausefulcounsellingstrategytohaveclients‘‘schedulecomebacks’’alongthejourneyofcareerdevelopmentasawaytoacknowledgeandnormalisetherealityoffailure.Addressingthefearoffailure

Itmaybethatfailureisneglectedfrequentlyintheliteratureoncareerdevelopmentcounsellingbecausebothclientsandtheircounsellorsareafraidofit.Careercounsellorsmaybeafraidoffailurebecausetheymayfeardisappointingclients’expectationsthattheyshouldhelpthemandevenprovidethesolutionstotheirproblems.Ifso,suchcounsellorsneedtoaddresssuchclients’expectationsintermsofcounsellors’limitationsinanuncertainworld(Pryor&Bright,2011).

Clients’fearoffailureneedstobeaddressedthroughaninvestigationofwhyfailureseemssobadforthem.Aresuchconcernslegitimatefears?Whatistheworstoutcomethatcouldoccurthroughthefailureofaparticulardecisionoraction?Howmightclientsprepareforandcopewithsuchcontingencies?Howmightconsiderationofsuchoutcomesassistinredressingweaknessesintheproposedcourseofactionincomparisonwithotheralternatives?Whatcontingencyplanscanbeformulatedtoreducethepossibilitiesoffailures?

Insomewaysthisissimplytheobverseofso-called‘‘magicquestioning’’incareercounselling.Magicquestioningtypicallyinvitesclientstocontemplatetheircareerfuturewithoutanylimitationsofpower,money,knowledge,capacitiesoropportunities.‘‘Failurequestioning’’couldbeunderstoodintermsofwhatifeverythingyouplannedtodoinyourcareeroveraspecifiedtimeinthefuture,wasafailure.Whatwouldthatlooklike?Howwouldyoureact?Whatwouldyoudo?JanisandMann(1977)suggestedasimilarstrategyasacontingencyplanstrategy.Acceptingoutlimitations

TheChaosTheoryofCareersdrawsattentionnotonlytohumanpotentialsbutalsotohumanlimitations.Inacomplex,changing,connectedworld,no-onecaneverknoweverythingorcontrolalloutcomes.Lifeiscontingentandsoallourplansand

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effortsaresubjecttouncertainty.Infact,fromasystemstheoryperspectivesuchasCTC,limitationsareessentialfororderandstability.Withoutlimitationssystemswouldnotbeboundedandrealitywouldbetotalchaos.Ourlimitationsinthissense,defineustoatleastthesameextentasourcapabilities.Therefore,theyshouldbeexplored,mapped,understoodandaccepted.Someaspectsofourlivessimplycannotbechanged.Wecannotregrowaseveredleg.Wecannotguaranteewinningalotteryorsuccessfullyobtaininghighlycompetitiveentryintoadesiredcourseororganization.However,ratherthan‘‘awfulising’’(Ellis,1969)suchlimitations,counsellingclientsneedtolearntoutilizethemandtoworkaroundthem.Suchstrategiestodothisinclude:Doingwhatyoucandoandavoidingwhatyoucannotdo;Developingpartnershipsandteamstoredressindividuals’limitations;Relinquishingunrealisticaspirations;Usingstrengthstocompensateforweaknesses(Edelman,2002).Toleratingtheimperfect

Allclientsneedtoacceptthatanuncertainworldinevitablymeansthatinhumantermsitwillalsobeanimperfectworld.Sinceallofusarelimitedthenmostofoureffortsaresubjecttofailuresoonerorlater.However,thisrealizationdoesnotrendermeaninglessallsuchefforts.ApersonworkingfortheInternationalRedCrossortheUnitedNationscanreadilyacknowledgethatworldstarvationorworldpeace,mayneverbeachievable—butthatdoesnotmeanthateffortstoachievesuchgoalsarenotnobleandinlimitedwaysmaybeefficacious.No-onecanhelpeveryonebutindividualscanpositivelyimpactsomeotherpeople.Thedesireforperfectionisarecipeforfrustrationoranexcuseforfailuretoactatall.Perfectjobs,perfectorganisationsperfectteachersandperfectsupervisorsdonotexist.Toleratingtheimperfectisnotacceptinganunsatisfyingcompromisesomuchasanempathicresponsetohumanlimitations(includingourown)andacontingentreality.

Vocationalcounsellorsintherehabilitationcontextfrequentlyencounterclientswhohaveconfrontedtheunpredictabilityoftheworldintheexperienceofseriousaccidentortraumaandintheprocesshavehadtheirexpectationsandconfidenceshattered.Someoftheseclientsthenbecomeimprisonedinself-limitation(Pryor&Bright,2007).Suchexperiencescanmakepeopleintimidatedbychangeandunwillingtothinkoractconstructivelyforfearoffurtherinjury.Everynewsituationandchallengemayappeartoogreatandtoodifficult.Suchindividualsmaynotonlyaccepttheirlimitations,theyeitherconsciouslyorunconsciously,exaggeratethem.Forthem,allnewactionisdoomedtofailure.Theseclientsrequirecounsellingsupporttocometotermswiththefactthatuncertaintyandlimitationdonotentailthefutilityofstrategyorunderminethepoweroftakinginitiative.InCTCtermscomplexdynamicalsystemsarebothunstableandstable,predictableandunpredictable,routineandsurprising.Counsellingstrategiessuchasbreakingtasksdown,exercisinglimitedinitiative,developingselfefficacyandfocusingonwhattheycaninfluencearesomeofthewayscounsellorscanassistsuchclientstobeingabletoovercomeself-limitingthinkingandbehaviour.

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Valuingfailure

Clientsneedtobeencouragedtovaluefailureratherthanfearandeschewit.Failureoftenresultsfromhavingtriedsomethingveryambitiousorextremelydifficult.Theeffortitselfmaybepraiseworthy.Suchindividualsmayhavesoughttochallengethemselvesinthehopethattheymightdosomethingextraordinary.Manyconstrainedbyfearoffailure,neverevenundertakesuchendeavours.Thefactthatthosewhodidwereunsuccessfuldoesnotrendertheexperiencelessnoteworthy.Itdemonstratesthattheywerepreparedtopushthemselvesbeyondtheirknownlimitsinanefforttounderstandwhatthoselimitsactuallyare.Moreover,itispossibletoconstruesuchfailureasaformofsuccess.Thusweightliftersonlyknowtheirowncapabilitiesatthepointatwhichtheycannotliftanythingheavier.Orinathleticstorecorda‘‘personalbest’’maynotmeanthatthepersonwinstheracebutitdoesmeanthatheorshehasstillaccomplishedsomethingworthwhile.

Further,failureteachesuswhatdoesnotwork.Weoftenundervaluetheusefulnessofsuchinformation.IrishauthorJonathonSwiftisreportedtohaveobservedthathavingmadeamistakeisnotlamentablebutratheritmeansthatwearewisertodaythanwewereyesterday.Pharmaceuticalcompaniesspendmillionsofdollarseachyearondevelopingdrugsover90%ofwhichwillneverbecomemarketable.Failurehelpspeopletolearnpersistence.Inourownexperienceaswriters,wehavelearntmorefromthecriticsofourworkthanfromoursupporters.Reviewersexposeourfailurestothinklogicallyandcommunicateintelligibly.Everyrejectedjournalmanuscriptisavaluablelearningexperienceforus.Continuouslymonitoring,evaluatingandplanning

BrightandPryor(2008)highlightedthecareercounsellingneedtoshiftinterventionperspectivesfromjustformulatingplanstoplansandplanning.Inachangingworldyesterday’splansmaybeaddressingsituationswhichnolongerobtain.Inaglobalisedworldinwhichchangeisnon-linear,subtlechangesintheeconomicsorpoliticsofcomplexdynamicalsystemsmayresultinimplicationsforindividuals’workinglivesinplacesfardistantfromsuchchanges.Therecent‘‘globalfinancialcrisis’’isanobviouscaseinpoint.However,oftensuchchangescanbemorelocalisedsuchasapubliciseddeclineintheprofitabilityofanemployingmanufacturingcompanyinacountrytown.Itisacommonoccurrenceforindividualsworkinginsuchorganizationstodenyorotherwiseavoidconsideringthepossibilityofpersonalredundancyinsuchcircumstancesuntilitactuallyhappens.Regrettablyoftenitisonlythendistraughtpersonallyandfinancially,thattheyseekcareerdevelopmentsupport.

However,inacomplexlychangingworld,theCTCsuggeststhatindividualsneedtolearntobewatchfulratherthanassumethatthewaytheirworldisoperatingatthemomentwillcontinuetobethecaseindefinitelyintothefuture.Inthissensethemantraofgoalsettingasthekeytocareersuccessdoesneedtobequestioned.Intheshort-termgoalscanbeveryhelpfulinmotivating,organisingandachievingdesiredends.However,itisquestionableasShapiro(2006)hasobservedthatgoalsformulatedforlongertimeframesthatflowintoyears,areasefficacious.Oneofthe

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biggestproblemsissimplythatgoalformulatedandcommittedtoatonetimeinonesetofcircumstances,maysimplynotbethatdesirableasthetimeframebetweenitsformulationandtimeoffulfilmentincreasesbecausethelongersuchatimeintervalis,thehighertheprobabilitythatchangewillinterveneintermsofthepersonchanging,themeansofachievementchanging,thecontextinwhichthepersonisoperatingchangingandthenatureofthegoalitselfchangingovertime.Itisthereforeadvisableforindividualstoberegularlyandcontinuouslybemonitoringandevaluatingwhatitistheyareseekingtoachieveandifnecessarytoreformulatetheirgoalsinlightofchangeandnewknowledge.Contingencyplanning

Iffailure,despiteourbesteffortsandmostefficientplanning,isalwaysapossibility,thenitsimplymakessensetoworkoutsomealternativestrategiesifoutcomesdonotemergeinthewayswewantorexpect.Thisisnotanadmissionoffailureorevenanasseverationofalackofconfidenceinone’scurrentcareerdevelopment

´isstrategy.Itissimplyanacknowledgementofthewaytheworldworks.Thecliche

‘‘failingtoplanisplanningtofail’’andinthesenseofnotrecognisingthepossibilityoffailureitistruethatdenyingthepossibilityoffailureorsimplyneglectingtotakeintoaccount,constitutesapoorwaytonegotiatethechallengesofcareerdecisionmaking.Forexample,BrightandPryor(2009)developedcardsorttechniquewhichseekstodrawattentiontotheneedtoplanforcontingencybygettingclientstolookatcareerdevelopmentchallengesandtoaskquestionsabouttheprobabilities,possibilitiesandplansassociatedwitheach.Redeemingfailure

Scott(1994)hasoutlinedawayforindividualstoredeemtheexperienceoffailure.Herapproachcanbesummarisedasthefollowingfivesteps:(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)

Recognisetheproblem,failureordisaster:avoiddenyingthatthereisaproblem;

Separateyourselffromtheexperience:donotinternalisetheproblemandbrandyourselfasafailureasaresult;

Takethepositivesoutoftheexperience:lookforthethingsthatwentrightandforwhatlessonscanbelearntforthefuture;

Determineyournextstep:continuetoactandavoidgettingmiredininactivity;Patyourselfontheback:recognisethatfailuredidnotkillyou,thatyouarestillabletoactandthatnexttimeyoumaybeabletodobetter,thatis,yousurvivedandthatitselfisapositiveworthbeingcongratulatedfor.

Examiningpersonalrisktolerance

Consideringthepossibilitiesoffailuremayassistcareercounsellingclientstoevaluatehowrisktoleranttheyreallyare.Thatis,howtheyconstruethecost/benefitbalanceofparticulardecisionsandactionswithvaryinglevelsofoutcome

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uncertainties.Pryor,Amundson,andBright(2008)havesetoutsuchissuesforcounsellorsintermsofprobabilitiesandpossibilities.Understandingclients’individuallevelsofrisktolerancecanbehelpfulincareercounsellingespeciallyifthatrisktoleranceisanobstructiontopursingadesiredcareeroption.Counsellorsmaythenbeabletoutilizetechniquestoincreaseclientsrisktolerancebyinoculationtechniques,cognitivebehaviouralstrategiesordesensitizationprocessessuchastaking‘‘smallsteps’’towardhigherriskcareerpossibilities.Developingopportunityawareness:luckreadiness

ThroughtheworkofNeault(2002)andKrumboltzandLevin(2004),PryorandBright(2005a)identifiedeightdimensionsof‘‘luckreadiness’’whichisdefined‘‘…asrecognising,creating,utilisingandadaptingtoopportunitiesandoutcomesoccasionedbychance’’(p.2).Luckreadinesscanbeunderstoodasawaytonegotiateboththepositiveandthenegativeunplannedoutcomesinourlives.Inthissensefailureisincludedaspartofthedownsideofluckreadiness.Theeightdimensionsare:Flexibility,Optimism,Risk,Curiosity,Persistence,Strategy,EfficacyandLuckiness.TheLuckReadinessIndex(Pryor&Bright,2005b)assessesthesedimensionsandPryorandBright(2006)outlinesaseriesofstrategiesthatcareercounsellorscanemploytoassisttheirclientredressanyobviousweaknessesinthedimensionsasrevealedbyindividuals’LRIscalescores.

Conclusion

Failureincareerdevelopmenthashadaverybadpressforaverylongtime.Ithasbeenneglectedintherelevantliterature,eschewedbycareerdecisionmakersandshunnedbycounsellorsasanoutcomeincounselling.YetevenalittlereflectionwillacknowledgeasnotedbyRescher(1995).Thealmostendemicnatureoffailureinourworldandinhumanaspirationsandendeavours.Moreoverthecomplexity,changeandinterconnectednessofourworldofworkinthiscenturyalmostinevitablymeanthatfailureislikelytoincreaseinourcounsellingclients’experiencenowandintothefuture.Thisfacttherefore,shouldbeacceptedontheonehandandsoughttobeusedasconstructivelyaspossibleontheother.

InthispaperithasbeenarguedthattheChaosTheoryofCareersprovidesthemostcoherentconceptualaccountoffailureincareerdevelopmentsinceitplacesfundamentalemphasisonthelimitationsofhumanknowledgeandcontrolandonthecontingentnatureofallhumanexperience.Inasensefailureisaperpetualconcomitantofuncertaintyarisingfromthecomplexdynamicalnatureofsystems.Thereforeitdoesnotnecessarilyrepresentsomekindofpersonalweaknessofcharacterandoftenitsconsequencesarenottobefearedsincetheymayteachusalotaboutourselvesandhowtoadapttotheuncertainnatureofhumanexistenceandinparticular,tocareerdevelopment.

Often,individualsdonotknowallthattheymaybecapableofachievingbecausethefearoffailureconstrainstheireffortsandtheysettleforcomfortablemediocrityratherthanoutstandingachievement,thereasonableinsteadofthegreatandwhat

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theyknowtheycandoratherthanwhatmightbeabletobeaccomplished.Whileitisnotirrationalrecklessnessthatisbeingadvocated,sometimesitisimportanttoassistindividualstoextendtheirhorizonsbeyondtheirself-imposedlimitationsinordertoestablishwhatultimatelythoselimitationsmightactuallybewhichinturn,mayalsorevealpotentialsthatatpresentmaybescarcelyimaginedorcredited.Recognising,confronting,risking,adaptingto,persistingthroughandrecoveringfromfailurescanbeanintegralpartofthisprocessofbothselfandcareerdevelopment.Therefore,failuredeservesmorecreditandattentionthanitusuallyreceivesbycareerdevelopmenttheoristsandresearchers,careercounsellorsandcareerdecisionmakers.

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