1.语言language,Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2.reference,
2.语用学pragmatics, the study of meaning in context of words
3.语际语interlanguage,The approximate language system that a second language learner constructs which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language.
4.发音语音学articulatory, describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.
5.语音学 phonetics,it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
6.句法学syntax, it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.
7.反义词antonymy, It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.
8.词素morpheme, The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.
9.语义学semantics, It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
10.上坐标词superordinate,
11.意义sense, It’s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It’s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized.
12.语境context, The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
13.言内行为locutionary act,A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. it’s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
14.有序规则sequential rules ,Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.
15. 语言习得language acquisition,Language acquisition refers to the development of the Child’s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language, i.e, how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community.
16.音系学phonology, the study of sounds systems—the inventory of
distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.
17. 最小对立对minimal pairs,When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
18. 语言langue, The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.
19.音位phoneme, The basic unit in phonology, it’s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
20.多义词polysemy, It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.
21.语言学linguistics,Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
22. 语言能力competence,Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.
23.语言僵化fossilization,A process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent of a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.
24.所指意义reference, It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
25.phrase,syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase
简答题
1. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?
Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.
现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?
Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.
Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.
Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.
Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.
Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.
Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.
3. What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。
traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on’ high’ written language.
传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。
4. What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?
Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized.
Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality.
5. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.
The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
6. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance? Give an example.
Locutionary act:Illocutionary act:Perlocutionary act:
7. What are the three macro-functions of language proposed by M. A. K.
Halliday?
In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？
In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds.
8. What are the major types of synonyms in English?
(1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects
(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style
(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning
(4)Semantically different synonyms
What are the five design features of language specified by C. Hockett to show that human language is essentially different from any animal communication system?
Arbitrariness任意性/Productivity多产性/Duality双重性/Displacement移位性
Cultural transmission文化传递
9. What are the 4 major views concerning the study of meaning?
命名论The naming theory/意念论The conceptualist view/语境论Conceptualism/行为主义论Behaviorism
10. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication?
It’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
11.What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle (CP)? List their names and explain them briefly.
数量 the maxim of Quantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求
Make your contribution as informative as required;
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
质量the maxim of Quality -----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话
Do not say what you believe to false.
Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence
关系 the maxim of relation-----使你的话与话题相关be relevant
方式 the maxim of manner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序
13.To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experience?
The studies on the first language acquisition have influenced enormously those on the second language acquisition at both theoretical and practical levels.But,the second language is different from first language and the second language learners generally fail to attain native-like competence.
14.What is the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) concerning language acquisition?
The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about two to puberty.
15.Explain the definition of linguistics that “Linguistics is the scientific study of language”.
Linguistics studies not any particular language,but it studies language in
general.it observed facts to fully prove their validity.
16.What are suprasegmental features? And what are the major suprasegmental features in of English?
⑴ the phonological features that occur above the sound segmental level are called suprasegmental features.超切分特征是在语音切分成分层面之上的音系特征。
⑵the major suprasegmental features of English includes word stress, sentence stress and intonation. 主要包括单词重音、语句重音和语调。
⑶ The suprasegmental features distinguish meaning. 超切分特征区分意义。
17.What is grammaticality? What might make a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?什么是语法性？一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的?
Grammaticality---the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence.
A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at all
18.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related and how do they differ? Sentence meaning与Utterance meaning的区别
Sentence meaning---abstract, decontextualized.
Utterance meaning---concrete, contextualized it’s based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。
While most utterances take the form of sentences ,i.e. most utterances are complete sentences
In terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some can’t even be restored to complete sentences
19.What are the six sense relations between sentences?
X is synonymous with Y.
X entails Y.
X presupposes Y.
X is a contradiction.
X is semantically anomalous.
英国文学补充
Individualism：
Middle ages:focus on God;man lives chiefly for the future world
Reconnaissance:man is the center of all concern;focus on the dignity of man and the importance of the present life
Enlightenment:see man as social man;the general or universal characteristics of human behavior were more suitable subject matter
Romanticism:see man as an individual in the solitary state emphasize the special qualities of each mind;value the exploration and evaluation of the inner world
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