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The Study on the Management of Multinational Corporations in China from a Cultural Perspective

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Y98'5i五7编号天津财ji5圣大孥硕士学位论文论文题目:TheStudyontheManagementofMultinationalCorporationsinChinafromaCulturalPerspective专业名称:E....n....g...,l。.i..s...h......L.....a...n...g....u....a...g....e......a...n....d......L...—i—terature研究方向:Business_____-,_________--________-___-●_____-______-__。。●__-●____-___●--。。_。●__一English作者姓名:LuoYuan导师姓名:天津财缝大摹研究生部2006年5月V工985I47内容摘要随着全球化进程的不断推进和我国经济的进一步发展,尤其是跨国企业的出现和发展使跨文化管理这一学科得到了学术界更多的关注。关于此学科已经出现了很多深入透彻的理论论述。跨文化管理是专门用于跨国企业的范畴之中的,在这些企业中,来自不同文化背景的人必须在同一文化环境中一起工作,此时对同一文化环境他们的表现及反应会大相径庭。这些差异化的表现会成为企业的管理者所要面对的巨大的挑战。因此,跨国企业中的人力资源管理者应当首先提升对文化差异的认识以及这些差异对管理所产生的影响,然后找到恰当的方法来减弱由于文化差异所带来的负面效应,从而达到对企业的有效管理。本文首先介绍了一些与文化有关的知识和所涉及到的基本概念,其中包括文化的定义、特征,以及不同的文化维度;接下来对有关文化与管理的相互关系进行了理论综述,涉及文化与管理的关系,文化差异对管理的影响,并且分析了企业管理中产生文化差异的原因;第四章中主要分析了跨国企业在中国的发展现状,其企业内部跨文化管理所存在的问题及发展趋势;第五章就企业内部因文化差异所引发的冲突提出对策。关键词:跨国企业(MNCs)跨文化管理中国市场有效管理ABSTRACTWiththeadvanceofglobalizationandtherapiddevelopmentofoureconomy,especiallywiththeemergenceanddevelopmentoftheinternationalenterprises,thestudyoncross-culturalmanagementhasattractedmoreacademicattentions.Alotofprofoundandin—depththeorieshavebeenestablishedonit.Cross-culturalmanagementisaspecialtermwhichisappliedintheMultinationalCorporations(MNCs),wherepeoplefromdifferentculturesmayworktogether.Inthiscasetheymayhavedifferentvalues,beliefs,andmaybehaveverydifferently.Whentheygettogethertoworkinthesameculturalsetting,theymayrespondverydifferently,whichmaybecomeagreatchallengetothemangersoftheorganization.Therefore,humanresourcesmanagersshouldfirstlyenhancetheawarenessofculturaldifferenceanditsimpactonmanagement,thenworkoutproperwaystoreducethenegativeeffectsexertedbytheculturalconflictstoachievetheeffectivenessinmanagement.Thispaperfirstlyintroducessomeculture—relatedknowledgeandsomebasicconcepts,whichincludesvariousdefinitionsaboutcultureandcharacteristicofculture,differentdimensionsofculture;thenitprovidesageneralreviewontherelationshipbetweencultureandmanagement,whichincludestherelationship,theimpactofculturaldifferenceonmanagementmadanalyzesthecausesofcultureconflicts;thefourthchapteranNyzesthecurrentdevelopmentofmultinationalcorporationsinChina,problemsandtendencyofthecross-culturalmanagementofaMNCs;thefifthchapterdrawsonnaturalconclusionandproposessomefeasiblesuggestionscross.culturalmanagement.KEYWORDS:managementCorporations(MNCs)cross.culturalChinesemarketeffectivenessinmanagementMultinationalTheStudyontheManagementofMultinationalCorporationsinChinafromaCulturalPerspectiveChapterOneIntroductionI.BackgroundandtheReasonoftheStudyMultinationalCorporation(MNC)canbedefinedasabusinessenterprisewithmanufacturing,sales,orservicesubsidiariesinoneormoreforeigncountries,alsoknownasatransnationalorinternationalcorporation.Typically,amultinationalcorporationdevelopsnewproductsinitsnativecountzTandmanufacturesthemabroad,oReninThirdWorldnations,thusgainingtradeadvantagesandeconomiesoflaborandmaterials.AlmostallthelargestmultinationalfirmsareAmerican,Japanese,orWestEuropean.Suchcorporationshavehadworldwideinfluenceoverotherbusinessentitiesandevenovergovernments,manyofwhichhaveimposedcontrolsonthem.TheearliesthistoricaloriginsofmultinationalcorporationsCanbetracedtothemajorcolonizingandimperialistventuresfromWesternEurope,notablyEnglandandHolland,whichbeganinthe16thcenturyandproceededforthenextseveralhundredyears.Duringthisperiodoftime,firmssuchastheBritishEastIndiaTradingCompanywereformedtopromotethetradingactivitiesorterritorialacquisitionsoftheirhomecountriesintheFarEast,Africa,andtheAmericas.However,multinationalcorporation,asitisknowntoday,didnotreallycomeontothesceneuntilthe19thcentury,wimtheadventofindustrialcapitalismanditsconsequences:thedevelopmentofthefactorysystem;larger,morecapitalintensivemanufacturingprocesses;betterstoragetechniques;andfastermeansoftransportation.Duringthe19thandearly20thcenturies,multinationalexpansionWasfurtherdrivenbythesearchforresourcesincludingminerals,petroleum,andfoodstuffsaswellaspressuretoprotectorincreasemarkets.ThosecompanieswerealmostexclusivelyfromtheUnitedStatesandahandfulofWesternEuropeannations,inwhich60percentofthesecorporations’investmentswenttoLatinAmerica,Asia,Africa,andtheMiddleEast.Fuelledbynumerousmergersandacquisitions,monopolisticandoligopolisticconcentrationoflargemultinationalsinmajorsectorssuchaspetrochemicalsandfoodalsohaditsrootsintheseyears.TheUSagribnsinessgiantUnitedFruitCompany,forexample,controlled90percentofUSbananaimportsby1899,whileatthestartoftheFirstWorldWar,RoyalDutch/Shellaccountedfor20percentofRussia'stotaloilproduction.BetweentheFirstandSecondWorldWars,demandfornaturalresourcescontinuedtoofferanincentiveforEuropeanandUScorporateventures.Althoughcorporateinvestmentsfi'omEuropedeclinedsomewhat,theactivitiesofUSMNCs(MultinationalCorporations)expandedvigorously.InJapan,thisperiodwitnessedthegrowthofthezaibatsu(or”financialclique”)includingMitsuiandMitsubishi.Thesegiantcorporations,whichworkedinalliancewiththeJapanesestate,hadoligopolisticcontrolofthecountry’Sindustrial,financial,andtradesectors.DuringthetwodecadesaftertheSecondWorldWar,USMNCsheavilydominatedforeigninvestmentactivity,whenEuropeanandJapanesecorporationsbegantoplayevergreaterroles.Inthe1950s,banksintheUS,Europe,andJapanstartedtoinvestvastamountsofmoneyinindustrialstocks,whichencouragedcorporatemergersandfurtheredcapitalconcentration.Besides,majortechnologicaladvancesinshipping,transport(especiallybyair),computerization,andcommunicationsalsoacceleratedMNCs。increasinginternationalizationofinvestmentandtrade,whilenewadvertisingcapabilitieshelpedMNCsexpandmarketshares.Allthesetrendsmeantthatbythe1970soligopolisticconsolidationandMNCs’roleinglobalcommercewasofafardifferentscalethanearlierinthecentury.Whereasin1906thereweretwoorthreeleadingfirmswimassetsofUS¥500million,in1971therewere333suchcorporations,one-thirdofwhichhadassetsofUS¥1billionormore.Additionally,MNCshadcometocontrol70-80percentofworldtradeoutsidethecentrallyplannedeconomies.Overthepastquartercentury,theworldhaswitnessedaproliferationofmultinationals.In1970,thereweresome7,000parentMNCs,whiletodaythatnumberhasjumpedto38,000.90percentofthemarebasedintheindustrializedworld,whichcontrolover2207,000foreignsubsidiaries.TheuniverseofMNCsislarge,diverseandexpanding.Sincetheearly1990s,thesesubsidiaries’globalsaleshavesurpassedworldwidetradeexports嬲theprincipalvehicletodelivergoodsandservicestoforeignmarkets.Bythen,therewereanestimated37,000MNCsintheworld,withatleast170,000foreignaffiliates.Ofthese,33,500wereparentcorporationsbaSedindevelopedcountries.By2004thenumberofMNCshadrisentosome70,000withatleaSt690,000foreignaffiliates,almosthalfofwhicharenowlocatedindevelopingcountries.TherehasalsobeenagreatincreaseinMNCsinves缸nentintheless-industrializedworldsincethemid-1980s’.Itshowedthatsuchinvestment,alongwithprivatebankloans,hasgrownfarmoredramaticallythannationaldevelopmentaidormultilateralbanklending.Conspicuouslyenough,governmentsthroughouttheless-industrializedworldtoday,burdenedbydebt,lowcommodityprices,structuraladjustment,andunemployment,viewMNCsinthewordsoftheBritishmagazineTheEconomist.as”theembodimentofmodernityandtheprospectofwealth:fulloftechnology,richincapital,repletewithskilledjobs.”Asaresult,TheEconomistnotesfurther,thesegovernmentshavebeen”queuinguptoattractmultinationals”andliberalizinginvestmentrestrictionsaswellasprivatizingpublicsectorindustries.InthesecaSesless-industrializedcountriesoffer,forMNCs,notjustthepotentialformarketexpansionbutalsolowerwagesandfewerhealthandenvironmentalregulationsthanintheirdevelopedanddevelopingcounterparts.Thus,in1992foreigninvestmentintoless-industrializednationsWaSoverUS¥50billion;thefigurehadjumpedtoUS¥71billionin1993andUS¥80billionin1994.In1992・93,less-industrializedcountriesaccountedforbetweenone-thirdandtwo-fifthsofglobalFDIinflows一一morethanatanytimesince1970.Theseflowshavenotbeenevenlydistributed,however,withjusttenhostrecipients一-themajorityinAsia-・accountingforupto80percentofallFDItotheless-industrializedworld.Anyway,theroleofMNCsintheworldeconomyhasthuscontinuedtogrow,嚣reflectedintheexpansionofFDIstockandintheoperationsofforeignaffiliates.Asisknowntoall,sales,valueadded(grossproduct),aSsets,employmentandexportsofforeign3altiliateshaveallresumedanupwardtrendsince2002.However,thedegreeofmultinationalityofhostcountriescanletoastandstillduring2000-2002inbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountriesaccordingtothemultinationalityindicesforhosteconomies.(WorldInvestmentReport2005)ThisreflectsthedeclineofFDIflowsintheseregionsduringthatperiod.Therearealsosignificantdifferencesinthedegreeofmultinationalityofdifferentcountries.Themostmultinationalizedeconomiesin2002wereBelgiumandLuxembourg,amongdevelopedcountries,andHongKong(China),amongdevelopingeconomiessincethisindexwasdevelopedin1996(WorldInvestmentReport99).WhileIndiahasbeencatchingupininwardFDI,itstillranksnearthebottomin2002.ThemuRinationalityofhostcountriesdependsontheextenttowhichMNCsareexpandingtheirforeignactivitiesinvariouslocations.Allinall,multinationalcorporationsar'eumongtheworld’Sbiggesteconomicinstitutions.Aroughestimatesuggeststhatthe300largestMNCsownorcontrolatleastone—quarteroftheentireworld’Sproductiveassets,worthaboutUS¥5trillion.MNCs’totalannualsalesarecomparabletoorgreaterthantheyearlygrossdomesticproduct(GDP)ofmostcountries(GDPisthetotaloutputofgoodsandservicesforfinalusebyanation'seconomy).ItochuCorporation'ssales,forinstance,exceedthegrossdomesticproductofAustria,whilethoseofRoyalDutch/ShellequalIran’SGDRTogether,thesalesofMitsuiandGeneralMotorsaregreaterthantheGDPsofDenmark,Portugal,andTurkeycombined.andUS¥50billionmorethanalltheGDPsofthecountriesinsub-SaharanAfrica.Fromtheabove-mentionedweCallbefullyawareofthegrowingimportanceofmultinationalcorporationstotheworldeconomy.Especiallyinrecenttwoyears,alotmoresi嘶ficantmergersandacquisitionshavebeenaccomplished,withthejointeffortstobuildupamorepowerfulsubstituteinacertainindustry.WiththerapiddevelopmentofMNCs,thedivisionoflaborhas,inmostcases,crossedthebordersofnations,whichhasalreadybeenconductedonaninternationalbasis.Andasaresultofthedeepeningoftheinternationaldivisionoflaborinahorizontalway,themanufactureofproductshasbeenmuchmorespecialized,complicatedanddiversified,whichservesasanimpetustoa4higherlevelofinterdependencebetweenworldeconomies.Accordingly,thereisnospacetodoubttheclaimthatallthenationsfiredeeplyinvolvedineachother’Sprocessofdevelopment.Inthissense.weshouldacknowledgethatafundamentalshiftisoccurringintheworldeconomy.Wefiremovingrapidlyawayfromaworldinwhichnationaleconomieswererelativelyself-containedentities,isolatedfromeachotherbybarrierstocross—bordertradeandinvestment;bydistance,timezones,andlanguage;andbynationaldifferencesingovernmentregulation,culture,andbusinesssystems.Instead,wearemovingtowardaworldinwhichbarrierstocross-bordertradeandinvestmentfiretumbling;perceiveddistanceisshrinkingduetoadvancesintransportationandtelecommunicationstechnology;materialcultureisstartingtolooksimilartheworldover;andnationaleconomiesfiremergingintoaninterdependentglobaleconomicsystem.Sothattheappearanceandprosperityofmultinationalcorporationsarequitenaturalandnecessary,servingasthemajordrivenpowertoincreaseworldoutputandwelfare.Moreandmorepeoplefindthat,oddlyenough,thevisiblebordersbetweennationsfirenolongerthemainobstacletothesuccessofMNCs.Onthecontrary,theinvisibleborders,thedifferencesbetweencultureshavebeenrecognizedtobethetoughestparttohandle,which,asamatteroffact,havebecomethedeterminantfactorinthesuccessofIVlNCs.ItshowsthattheignoranceoftheculturaldifferencehasledtoamultitudeoffailuresinmanagingMNCs.andnoonesurvivedinthiscase.InternationalbusinessiSdifferentfromdomesticbusinessbecausecountriesfirefarmoredifferentthanwecaneverimagine.Runningabusinessundertheinternationalsettingwillinevitablyinvolvemisunderstandings,clashesandconflictsbetweencultures.Thereforethestudyandresearchoncross-culturalmanagementisofgreatsignificanceandshouldbethebestchoiceinordertOsolvetheproblems.FortheMNCs,onetlliI培isforsurethatclashesandconflictswillcomefrombothinteriorandexterior.Ontheonehand,withintheorganization,employees,withdifferentculturebackgrounds,mayhavedifferentattitudesandexpectationstowardtheorganization;themanagers,probablywithdifferentnationalities,educationevenlanguagesandreligionsmayhavequitedifferentideasaboutmanagerialmethods,skillsete.Ontheotherhand,5multinationalcorporationsshouldnotonlymeetthedemandsofcustomersfromadifferentculture,butalsolearntocomplywiththecustoms,traditionsandregulationsofthehostcountries.Astheoldsayinggoes,wheninRomedoastheRomansdo.OnlyinthiswaycantheMNCsbeacceptedbythelocalpeopleandthebusinessbemadeflourishinaforeignland.Sowecometoaconclusionthatknowinghowtomanageacrossculturesinsuchapluralisticsettingisoftheutmostimportance,whichshouldbeconsideredthekeytothesuccess0fMNCs.Nowadays,asweallknow,wehavebeenusheredintoabrandnewera,aneraofknowledgeeconomy,whichisalsocharacterizedbytheadvanceoftheglobalizationofeconomy.That,quiteunavoidably,resultsintheemergenceofMNCsallthroughouttheworld,andofcoRrseChinaisnoexception.Thus,thestudyonthecross・culturalmanagementatthemomentbearsafar-reachingsignificanceforthesubjectboththeoreticallyandpractically.Meanwhile,thestudywilldefinitelyhelptogetChinapreparedformoreinvestmentfromabroadandtobereadytogointernationalourselves.II.IksearchHistoryandLiteratureReviewManagementhasbeenofgreatconcerntoorganizedsocietythroughoutcivilizedhistory,althoughitssystematicstudyasaseparatebranchofhumanknowledgeisfairlyrecent.Theepochofmanagementinquiryandresearchhaslargelydevelopedduringthe215‘century,andmanyschoolsofthoughtshavetriedtoformulatetheunderlyingprinciplesofmanagement.ThedevelopmentoftechnologyduringtheIndustrialRevolutionproducedafactorysystemthatbroughtworkersintoacentrallocationandintocontactwithotherworkers.Itwasduringthedevelopmentofeffectiveandefficientmanagementcontrolofthosenewlyfoundedorganizationsthatmanymanagementconceptsbegantoemerge.AdamSmithinhiswritings,andparticularlyinTheWealthofNations,describedthe’’divisionofwork”and”timeandmotionstudies”astheyshouldbeemployedinorganizations.Otherwritersofthatperiod,includingRobert0wen,CharlesBabbage,andCharlesDupin,wroteontheproblemsofmanagementinfactories.Manyoftheprinciplesthatwerelaterreemphasizedandfurtherrefinedinboththescientificmanagementapproachandthehumanrelations6approachwfffeactuallyfirstdevelopedbythosewritersduringtheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.Forinstance,CharlesBabbage,amathematician,stressedtheimportanceofdistinguishingmentalfromphysicalwork,andwantedtoimproveefficiencybyencouragingmanagerstousetimestudytechniques,tocentralizeproduction,toinaugurateresearchanddevelopment,etc.Hecontributedmuchtothescientificmanagementapproachandwasapioneerindevelopingtheprinciplesthattodayareusedincomputers.Variousmethodshavebeenusedinthestudyofadministration.Thefirstsystematicapproachwaslegalistic,beingdevotedtoastudyoftheorganization,powers,andactivitiesandlimitationsofthepublicauthorities.Later,amorescientificapproachWasused,concernedchieflywithadministrativeorganizationastheinstrumentofmanagement.Anattemptwasmadetodetermine,onthebasisofempiricalevidence,rulesforefficientandeffectiveadministrativeorganizationandoperation.Morerecently,behavioralscientistshavebeenusingthemethodsofpsychology,sociology,andanthropologyinanefforttosecureabetterunderstandingofgroupbehavior,leadership,anddecisionmaking.FromHenryFayol&MaxWeber’SClassicalOrganizationTheory(1860s).toFredrikWTaylor,HenryL.GanttFrank&LillianGillberth’SScientificManagement(1890s).fromHarringtonEmerson’SStandardization(1890s),toDouglasMcgreger’STheoryxTheoryy(1950s),thesepioneeringcontributions(somecallthem”schools”)arereferredtodifferentlyindifferenttexts,butthecontentofeachisreadilyrecognized.NooneCanaffordnottobefamiliarwiththecontributionsofthemajorpioneerthinkersinthefield.Thisisnottosaythattheirideasshouldbeacceptedwithoutquestion;however,theirideasarethebasisforthedevelopmentofmanagementasweknowittoday,andtheircontributionsprovideiIl:sightintotheessenceofmanagement.However,thestudiesbefore1970sonlyconcentratedontheroleofeconomicfactorsthatplayedinrunninganorganization.Duringtheperiodoflate1970s,theJapanesestyleofmanagementhasarousedtheworld’Sattention,especiallyinthewesternsocieties.Japanisoneofthelargesteconomicsuperpowers.WithskyscrapersandAmericanfast-foodchains,afirstglanceofacitymayprovidetheimpressionthatJapanistrulywesternized.7Yet,desp沁theappearances,Japanhasremained“uniquelyJapanese”inmanyaspects,whichmakesmanyuninformedwesternbusinesspeopleinJapanconfusedandevonfrustrated.Overthelast20yearstherehasbeenincreasinginterestbywesterncompaniesinJapanesemanagementpractices(JMPs)withtheflourishofMNCsinJapan.Interestinthesemethodshasgrownasaresultofthelargeperformancegaps,whichapparentlyexistbetweenJapanesemanufacturersandtheirwesterncounterparts,intermsofbothproductivityandquality.AnumberofstudieshavebeencarriedoninanefforttodeterminewhetherJapanesepracticesCanbesuccessfullytransferredabroadorwhethertheyareculturallybound.ItisarguedthatwesternmanagersmustavoidjustblindlycopyingJapanesepracticesandshouldbeencouragedtobecomeawareofwhycertainJapaneseapproacheshavebeensuccessful.Finally,considerationneedstobegiventotheunderlyingfactorsofthatSUCCESS,whicharenecessaryandappropriatetotheirowncompanies’advancement.TheyfindthatJapanesemanagementpracticesalsopossesssomedisadvantages,suchasalackofflexibilitywhichwillprecludetheemployees’developmentofcreativityandcommonfaithinthecorporation.Asaresult,moreandmorescholarsandexpertsbegantoengageinthestudyofcross-culturalmanagementinhopestoworkoutanAmericanmethodofcross-culturalmanagement.Fromthenon,anewbranchofmanagementWaSestablishedandevolvedintheUnitedStates.Intheearly1980s,abigstridehasbeenachievedinthisfieldbythepublishingofaseriesofinfluentialworks,WilliamOuchi’STheoryZ,TerrenceDeal&AllanKennedy’SCorporateCulture,LearningOrganizationbyRobertMayes,StevenWheelwright,andKlmClark.7SFrameworkbyMckinsey&CoandSOon.Theirworksmarkedtheturningpointintheareafromeconomicfactorstonon-economicfactors,tobemoreexacLculturalfactors.Afterthatalotofresearcheshavebeenconductedbasedondifferentculturalcontextswhichhaveincludedtheconceptofcorporateculture,models,aswellastherelationshipbetweencultureandmanagement.Here,twodifferentmethodsofstudytailnotbeignored.OneisthequalitativemethodsupposedbyProf.EdgarH.ScheinfromMIT9basedonwhichobservations,interviewsandevaluationshavebeenemployedtoexplorethebasicconceptofcorporatecultureanditsdeepstructure.Unfortunately,this8methoddidn’tholdwaterbecauseitWaSreallyisthequantitativemethodheldbytoohardtomeflsureandcompare.AnotherBusinessManagementCollegeProf.RobertQunnfromintheUniversityofMichigan.Heclaimedthatcorporateculturecoulddifferentdimensions.Accordingly,somemodelscorporateculturecouldbemeasuredwideacceptancebemeasuredfromhavebeenputforwardbywhichtheanddiagnosed.Butthismethodalsofailedtoreceivecorebecauseitwastoosuperficialanddidn’ttouchtheofit.Since1990s,withthefl】rtheradvanceofMNCsintheworldscale,themobilityofworkforceshasbeenincreasedgreatly.AlthoughMNCsallovertheworldhavesharedalotofthingsincommonsuch鼬theorganizationalstructure,decision-makingprocess,etc.,stillthewayofdealingwiththediversityofemployeescouldneverbecopied.Inaddition,allthestudiesandresearchhavemanifestedthatthecultureissueshouldbe、riewedasthenumberoneprioritywhichdemandsgreateffortstohandleinordertoachievesuccessinMNCs’management.BackinChina,thestudyoncross—culturalmanagementhasjuststarted;hencemoreoneffortsareneededlacktomakeOurvoiceheardtheinternationalforum.Andbynowwestillde印insightsandrepresentativeworninthisfield.III.TheSignificanceoftheThesisInternationalizationincreasesthecomplexityofanorganizationandoftheenvironmentawithwhichitiSconcemed.11leincreaseincrossborderbusinessactivitieshadledtogrowinginterestinculturalandbusinessspecificthat‘'Thedevelopments.Anyhowonetllingtogetherhasine、ritablylediscleartothehumanendeavortobringnationcloserglobalizationofbusinessforreasonsnotentirelyaltruistic.’’Intoday’Selectronicageandtofaceorvirtual,isanottoeliminatetheeraofglobalization,dailycross-culturalcontact,whetherfacefactoflifeinmostorganizations.Thegoalofinterculturalmanagementisdifferencesbutrathertousethosedifferencesofthisthesiscantoenhancecreativitywithintheorganization.Therefore,theobjectives1.giveabelisted嬲follows:detailedanalysisonthecurrentsituationofMNCsinChinabyemployingthebasictheoriesofcross-culturalmanagement.2.offersomefeasiblesuggestionstoenhancethe9effectivenessofhumanresourcesmanagementintheMNCsinChina.IV.LimitationsandFnrtherStudyBecalL∞ofthelimitationofknowledgeandtime,thisstudymaynotbeveryelaborateandapplicable.Asfar雒thestudyonthecross-culturalmanagementintheMNCsinChinaisconcerned,thereisstillalongwaytogosincewejustgetstarted.Therea∞alotofaSpectsuncoveredbynow.1willcontinuewiththestudylatertoworkoutsomemorefeasiblesuggestionsforourMNCstohelpthemachievefurtherdevelopment.ChapterTwoABriefIntroductiontoCulture—relatedKnowledgeandSomeBasicConceptsI.DefinitionsofCultureAsisknowntoall,cultureisubiquitous,multidimensional,complex,andall-pervasive(LarryA.Samovar,2000,36).Scholarshaveneverbeenabletoagreeonasimpledefinitionofculture.Inthiscase,manydifferentdefmitionshavebeensuggestedforit.Asearlyas1952.KroeberandKluckhohnlisted164definitionsofculturethatfoundintheanthropologyliterature(KroeberandKluckhohn,1952,181).Andlotsofnewdefinitionshavecomeontothescenesincethen.Actuallydefinitionsofculturerangefromall-embracingonestonarrowones.Inthe1870stheanthropologistEdwardTylordefinedcultureasacomplexwholethatincludesknowledge,belief,art,morals,law,custom,andothercapabilitiesacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.HoebclandFrost.whos∞cultureinnearlyallhumanactivity,definecultureasaIl‘‘integratedsystemoflearnedbehaviorpatternswhicharecharacteristicofthemembersofasocietyandwhicharenottheresultofbiologicalinheritance.”(HoebelandFrost,1976,6)Forthem,cultureisnotsomethingthatispredeterminedorinstincdve.Asallscholarsofculturebelieve,cultureistransmittedandmaintainedthroughcommunicationsandlearning.whichme黜cultureislearned.Allofthefftessagesabouteachindividual,includingreligion,food,dress,housing,toys,orbooksareculturallybased;thus,lOeverythingthatapersonexperiencesispartofhisaorherculture.Besides,BatesandPlogproposedescriptivedefinition,whichsuggeststhatcultureahasdistinctboundaries.Accordingtothem,cultureissystemofsharedbeliefs,values,usecustoms,behaviors,andartifactsthatthemembersandwithoneofasocietytocopewiththeirworldanother,andthataretransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationthroughlearning(1990).LarryA.Samovar,RichardE.PorterandLisaA.Stefani(2000)giveasouttheirversionfromthel陀=rspectiveofcommunicalion.Theydefineculturethedepositofknowledge,ofexperience,beliefs,values,actions,attitudes,meanings,hierarchies,religion,notionstime,roles,spatialrelations,concepmoftheuniverse,andartifactsacquiredbypeopleintheGeertcou/'seagroupofofgenerationsexpertonthroughindividualandgroupstriving.Hofstede,ancross-culturaldifferencesandmanagement,definesmembersofonecultureasthecollectiveprogrammingmindusingwhichtodistinguishthehumangroupfromanother.Sofar,culturehasbeendefinedinmanywaysbysuchawiderangeofpeoplefromviewculturewhendiverseacademicbackgrounds.HerewemainlyfollowHofstede’Spoint.Weasasystemofvaluesandnormsthataaresharedamongagroupofpeopleandthattakentogetherconstituteadesignforliving.Byvalueswemeanabstractideasaboutwhatdesirable.Putdifferently,valuesarcgroupbelievestobegood,right,andoughttosharedassumptionsabouthowthingsbe.BynormswemeanthesocialrulesandguidelinesthatprescribeappropriateweshallreferittoValuesareabehaviorinparticularsituations.Bysayingsociety,agroupofpeoplewhoshareacommonsetofvaluesandnorms.thestandardsbywhichcultureevaluatesactionsandtheirconsequences.whichaValuesformarethebedrockofaculture.Theyprovidethecontextwithinsociety’Sanormsestablishedandjustified.TheyaffectperceptionsandaCallhavestrongemotionalimpactuponpeople.Valuesmayincludeconceptssociety’Sattitudestowardsuchasindividualfreedom,democracy,honesty,truth,justice,loyalty,socialroleofobligations,collectiveresponsibility,theBesides,valuesmayoRenwomen,love,sex,marriage,andandeconomicSOon.bereflectedinthepoliticalsystemofasociety.Indifferentcultures,valuesmayvarydramatically.One'sp|啊actionsinoneculturecanberegarded鹬wronginamoralsenseinanotherculture.Forexample.Americansregardnepotismasimmoral,whilemostHispanicculturesviewitasaduty.Thus,itisimportanttounderstandtheprevailingvaluesinaparticularsocietyandthee】(tenttowhichtheyarerespectedintheeverydaybehaviorofindividuals.Thatcall,inmostcases,guaranteeasmoothcommunication.Normsalethesocialrulesthatgovemtheactionsofpeopletowardonanother.Normscanbefurthersubdividedintotwomajorcategories:folkwaysandmores.Folkwaysaretheroutineconventionsofeverydaylife,whicharegenerallyactionsoflittlemoralsignificance.Rather,folkwaysaresocialconventionsconcerningthingssuchaswhatconstitutestheappropriatedresscodeinaparticularsituation,goodsocialmanners,eatingwiththecorrectutensils,neighborlybehavior,andthelike.Violatingfolkwaysisnotnormallyaseriousmatter.Peoplewhoviolatethemmaybethoughtofaseccentricorill-mannered,buttheyarenotusuallyconsideredtobeevilorbad.Inmanycountriesforeignersmaybeinitiallyexcusedfortheviolationofthem.Whilemoresarenormsthatarcseencentraltothefunctioningofasocietyandtoitssociallife.Theyaremuchmoresignificantthanfolkways.Accordingly,theviolationofmoresCan嘶ngseriousconsequences.Thereisacaseinpoint.DrinkingalcoholiswidelyacceptedinAmerica,whereasinSaudiArabiatheconsumptionofalcoholisviewedasviolatingimportantsocialmoresandthereischancefortheviolatortobesentintoprison.II.CharacteristiesofCultureSofarculturehasbeendefinedinmanywaysbya、Ⅳiderangeofpeoplefromdiversebackgrounds.Generallyspeaking,culturereferstotheknowledge,beliefs,arts,laws,morals,cllstoms,habits,andcapacitiesacquiredbyindividualswhointeractinaspecificareaofasociety.Althoughitisdifficulttodefinespecificallywhatcultureis,severalcoreelementshavebeenacceptedbymanypeoplewhichconsistofthecharacteristicsofculture.Mostofcultureisinthetaken-for-grantedrealmandbelowtheconsciouslevel.Learningaboutculturecallthereforebeastimulatingawakeningaswegivemeaningtoouractionsandtheactionsofothers.What’Smorewhenwerefertoculturehere,weareapplyingthe12termtothedominantculturefoundineachsociety,whichclearlyindicatesthatthecultureunderdiscussionistheoneinpower.1.Cultureislearned.Itisnotinnate,SOitispossibleforapersontolearnanewculture.Thisisthesinglemostimportantcharacteristicofculture.Onethingisfor勖】∞thatwithouttheadvantagesofknowledgefromourforefathers,wewouldnothaveculture.Infact,‘'thegroup'sknowledgestoredup(memories,booksandobjects)forfutureuse”isatthecoreoftheconceptofculture.(Klucldaoha.1944)AllofUSareborn谢tllbasicneed争———needsthatcreateandshapebehaviOr.——buthowwegoaboutmeetingthoseneedsanddevelopingbehaviorstocopewiththemislearned.Anumberofpointsshouldbeclearinthiscase.Fist,weusuallylearnculturalpercepti0118,rules,andbehaviorsunconsciously.Second,theessentialmessagesofaculturegetreinforcedandrepeated.Andmird.welearnoRrculturefromalargevarietyofsources.2.CultureiSinterrelated.AlthoughvariousfacetsofcultureCanbeexaminedinisolation,theyshouldbeunderstoodinthecontextofthewhole.Acultureneedstobestudiedasacompletewhole.AsHallsai"’Youtouchacultureinoneplaceandeverythingelseisaffected.”(1976)3.CultureiSshared.Thefocusofcultureiswhatissharedbymembersofaparticulargroup.WeshouldremembereachcultureisuniqueandSOhasabodyofinformationthatisnotsharedbyallhumansocieties.Therefore,itispossibletoidentifyandstudythebehavioralpatternsofdifferentgroups.4.Cultureprovidesorientations.Generallyspeaking,aparticulargroupreactsinthesamewaytoagivenstimulus.Accordingly,understandingaculturecanhelptodeterminehowgroupmembersmightreactinvarioussituations.Onthewhole,everypersonisaproductofhisorherculturalenvironment.Thoughthis13ideaprovidesstabili哆andpsychologicalcomfort,itinherentlylimitsone’sunderstandingofothercultures.Mostpeopleusetheirpersonalculturalbackgroundasaguideforjudgingtheactions,views,customs,ormannersofothersevenwithoutbeingawareofit.Sowhenwecondemnsomeoneelsebecausehisorherviewsdonotcoincidewithours,donotneOectthefactthatourwordsandactionsmayalsobemisunderstoodinthesameway.III.TheStructureofCultureThetheoryonthestructureofculturewasdevelopedbytwonotedChinesescholarsLiangShamingandPangPu.Therearethreelevelsofculture:materialculture,socialculture,andideologicalculture.Contactsandcommunicationbetweenculturesbeginatthemateriallevelandgraduallyinfluencethesocialandtheideologicalculture.Asthematerialcultureisconstantlyprogressing,thesocialandtheideologicalculturearealsochanging.(Figure11Cultureisneverstatic.Whenstudyingaculture,aresearchershouldalwaysbearinmindchangesinallthreelevelsofaculturalstructure.Asmileviewmayresultinstereotypeorprejudicesagainstaparticularcultureanddonotreflectthetruepicture.Thatissomethingunaccepmbleanddangerouswhenitcomestointerculturalcommunicationwithinanorganization.IVDiverseCulturalPatternsThemannerinwhichweperceivetheworldrestsonmuchmorethanbeliefsandvalues.Culturesareextremelycomplexandconsistofnumerousinterrelatedculturalorientationsbesidesbeliefsandvalues,includingattitudes,norms,andmaterialaspects.Manyanthropologists,socialpsychologists,andcommunicationscholarshavedevisedtaxonomiesthatCanbeusedtoanalyzekeybehavioralpatternsfoundinparticularcultures.1.FourValueDimensionsEstablishedbyHofstedeDuring1980s,GeertHofstedesurveyedoverahundredthousandworkersinmultinationalorganizationsinaltogetherfortycountries.Hehasidentifiedfourvaluedimensionsthathaveasignificantimpactonbehaviorinallcultures.Theyareindividualism-collectivism,powerdistance,uncertaintyavoidanceandmasculinityand14FigureI.TheS廿uctureofCulturefemininity.Hofstede’Sworkshouldbeclassifiedasoneoftheearlierattemptstouseextensivestatisticaldatatoexamineculturalvalues.Afterthecarefulanddetailedanalysis,eachcountryWasassignedarankofonethroughfortycountriesineachcategory,dependingonhowitcomparedtotheothercountries.TheresultsdepictedaclearpictureofwhatWasvaluedinrespectiveculture.1)Individualism-CollectivismHerealthoughwespeakofindividualismandcollectivismasiftheyareseparateentities;itisimportanttokeepinmindthatallpeopleandcultureshavebothindividualandcollectivedispositions.(Table11Broadlyspeaking,individualismreferstothedoctrine,spelledoutindetailbytheseventeenth-centuryEnglishphilosopherKohnLocke,thateachindividualisunique,special,completelydifferentfromallotherindividuals,and‘'thebasicunitofnature”.(Stewart&Bennett,1991)Withthisasaprerequisite,wecanseehowtheinterestsofthe15individualareoroughttobeparamount,andthatallvalues,rights,anddutiesoriginateinindividuals.Table1RankingofFortyCountriesofRegionsOnIndividualismandCollectivismCountryOrRanking+CountryOrRanking+RegionRegion’AIIighscoremeansthecountrycailbeclassifiedacollective;alowerscoreisassociatedwithculturesthatpromoteindividualism.Source:AdaptedfromGeertHofstede.Culture'sConsequences:InternationalDifferences加H,orbRelaledValues(BeverlyHills:Sage.1980).16Theorionofthisvalue,雒thecaSewithmostculturalpatterns,hashadTwohundredyearsbeforeChrist,theLatinpoetalonghistory.anQuinusEuniushadofferedadvicewhichhadclearlydescribedtheindependentexpectstrangerstodoforyouwhatyoucannatureoftheindividual.Itsaid,’’Donotdoforyourself.’’Anyway,thisnotiondidn’tcomesinglybutinpairs.BenjaminFranklinreiterateditcenturieslaterbywritingdown“Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves.’’Ifyouareacarefullearner,youmayidentifythenotioninmanyEnglishproverbsandoldsayings.Forinstance,‘‘Doyourownthing'’whichreferstoindependence;‘‘Aman’Shomeishiscastle'’whichimpliestheemphasisonprivacy,etc.Severalbasicmostcomponentsshouldbeclarified.Theindividualisthesingleimportantunitinanysocialsetting,regardlessofthesizeofthatunit,andtheuniquenessofeachindividualisofparamountvalue.InTable1,ahighSCOremeal3sthecountrycanbeclassified船collective;alowerSCOreisassociatedwithculturesthattopromoteindividualism.AcCOrdingHofstede’Sfindings,theUnitedStates,Australia,OreatBritain,Canada,theNethedands,andNewZealandtendtowardindividualism.Inthiscase,Golemanhighlightedsomeofthecharacteristicsoftheseandotherculturesthattogroupsvalueindividualism.‘‘People’SpersonalgoalstakepriorityOVertheirallegiancelikethefamilyortheemployerTheloyaltyofindividualiststotoagivengroupisveryweak;theyfeeltheybelongmanygroupsandareaptleavingtochangeonetheirmembershipasitsuitsthem,switchingchurches,forexample,oremployerforanother.”∞.Golemanare1999)Thestrikingfeaturesofthoseculturesthattendtowardindividualismasfollows:an“r’consciousnessprevails;competitionratberthancooperationisencouraged;personalgoalstakeprecedenceorganizationsovergroupgoals;peopletendnottobeemotionallydependentoronandinstitutions;andeveryindividualhastherighttohisherprivateproperty,thoughts,andopinions.Thesecultureslaygreatemphasisuponindividualinitiativeandachievement,andtheyvalueindividualdecisionmaking.Collectivism,however,ischaracterizedbyarigidsocialonframeworkthatdistinguishesbetweenin-groupsandout-groups.PeopleCounttheirin-group,mainlym出relatives,clans,organizations,tolookafterthem,andinexchangeforthattheybelievetheyoweabsoluteloyaltytothegroup.Thereisaperfect17sulnnlaryofferedbyTriandistodescribethesituation:“collectivismmeansgreateremphasisontheviews,needs,andgoalsofthein-groupratherthanoneseif;socialnormsanddutydefinedbythein-groupratherthanbehaviortogetpleasure;beliefssharedwiththein-groupratherthanbeliefsthatdistinguishselffromin-group;andgreatreadinesstocoopomtewithin-groupmembers.’’(Triandis.1990)Incomparisontoindividualcultures,incollectivesocietiessuch8SChina,Colombia,PakistanandPeru,peoplearebomintoextendedfamiliesorclansthatsupportandprotecttheminexchangefortheirloyalty.Therefore,herea‘'we’’consciousnessprevails;identityisbasedonthesocialsystem;theindividualisemotionallydependentonorganizationsandinstitutions;theculturestressesbelongingtoorganizations;organizationsinvadeprivatelifeandtheclanstowhichindividualsbelongto;andindividualstrustgroupdecisions.(LarryA.Samovar,2000)ActuallythebasicmeaningofcollectivismhasalreadybeenconveyedinConfucius’words,’’Ifonewantstoestablishhimself,heshouldhelpotherstoestablishthemselyesatfirst.”AccordingtotheestimationproducedbyTriandisin1990,‘‘about70%ofthepopulationoftheworldlivesincollectivecultures”Therevelationofthefactshouldbesufficientmotivationformembersofotherculturestounderstandthepeoplefromcollectiveculturesintermsofperceptionsandcommunicationbehaviors.Aftercomparingthedifferenceexistinginculturesfromthisdimension,wecaneasilyimaginehowdifferentlytheywillactintheinterculturalsetting.2、PowerDistanceAnotherculturaldimensionispowerdistance,whichcanbeclassifiedintotwokinds,llighorlow.Thepremiseofthedimensiondealswiththeextenttowhichasocietyacceptsthatpowerisdistributedunequallyinrelationship,institutionsandorganizations.Highpowerdistancemeansinsomecultures.thosewhoholdpowerandthosewhoareaffectedbypoweraresignificantlyfarapartinmanyways.Peopleinhigh-power-distancecountriessuchasIndia,Singapore,Mexico,(Table2)believethatpowerandauthorityarefactsoflife.Theirculturesteachtheirmembersthatpeoplearenotequalinthisworldandthateverybodyhasarightfulplace,whichisclearlymarkedbycountlessvertical1Rarrangements.Thesenotionshaspasseddownfromgenerationtogenerationbothconsciouslyanunconsciously.Socialhierarchyispre、枷entandinstitutionalizesinequality.Table2RankingofFortyCountriesorRegionsonPowerDistanceArgentina25Japan22Australia29Mexico2Austria40Netherlands28Belgium12NewZealand37Brazil7Norway34Canada27Pakistan21Chile15Peru13Colombia10Philippines1Denmark38Portugal16Finland33Singapore6France9SouthAfrica24Germany30Spain20GreMBritain31Sweden35Greeee17Switzerland32HongKong8Taiwan19India4Thailand14Iran18Turkey11Ireland36U.S.A26Israel39Venezuela3墅堑垫!竺数!塾坚!璺苎+Alowscoremeansthecountrycarlbeclassifiedasonethatpreferalargepowerdistance;ahighscoreisassociatedwithculturesthatpreferasmallpowerdistance.Source:AdaptedfromGccrtHofstede,Culture§Consequences:InternationalDifferencesin19Ⅵ,hiklowpowerdistancepointsoutthepowerholdersandthoseaffectedbythepowerholdersa∞significantlycloser.Austria,Denmark.Norway,NewZealandcanbeclassifiedaslow-power-distancecountries.whereinequalityinsocietysllollldbeminimized.Inthesecountries,peopleinpowerofteninteractwiththeirsupportersandtrytolooklesspowerfulthantheyreallyale.Inthiswaythepowerfulandthepowerlesstrytoliveinharmony.3、UncertaintyAvoidanceAtthecoreofuncertaintyavoidanceistheinescapabletruismthatthefutureisunknown.Thoughwemayalltry,noneofUScanaccuratelypredictthenextmoment'day,yearordecade.HereaccordingtoHo触de.uncertaintyavoidanceindicatetheexcenttowhichaculturefeelsthreatenedbyoranxiousaboutuncertainandambiguoussituations.High-uncertainty-avoidanceculturestrytoavoiduncertaintyandambiguitybyprovidingstabilityfortheirmembers,establishingmoilformalrules,nottoleratingdeviantideasandbehaviors,seekingcouseusus,andbelievinginabsolutetruthsandtheattainmentofexpertise.(LarryA.Samovar,2000)Forthosepeopleinthisculturalsetting,theysufferahigherlevelofanxietyandstress.Thus,theystronglyneedwrittenrules,definiteplans,regulations,whichaddstructuretolife.Theywanteverythingsettleddownunderacertainframeworkorrules.High-uncertainty-avoidancememberswouldmostlikelywanttomoveataratherslowpaceandaskforagreateramountofdetailandplanning.Intheirminds,uncertaintywhichisinherentinlifeisacontinuoushazardthatmustbeavoided.Fromthetable,weCallseeGreece,Portugal,Peru,Belgium,andJapanbelongtothiscategory.(Table3)As缸aslow-uncertainty-avoidanceculturesareconcerned.theycarlaccepttheuncertaintyinherentinlifemoreeasilyandarenotthreatenedbydeviantpeopleandideas,SOtheyalemuchmoiltolerant.Justlikethetableshows,theUnitedStates,Sweden,Denmark,Ireland,Finland,Norway,andtheNetherlan&areincludedinthiscase.Theyhateactingontheregulations,rules,dislikethestructureassociatedwithhierarchy,andaremoilwillingtotakerisks.Theyarelongingformorefreedom.20Table3RankingorFortyCountriesorRegionsonUncertaintyAvoidanceCountryorRanking*CountryorRanking*丝型竺丝!竺一——Argentina10Japan4Australia27Mexico12Austria19Netherlands26Belgium3NewZealand30Brazil16Norway28Canada31Pakistan18Chile6Peru7Colombia14Philippines33Denmark39Portugal2Finland24Singapore40France7SouthAfrica29Germany21Spain9GreatBritain35Sweden38Greece1Switzerland25HongKong37Taiwan20India34Thailand22Iran23Turkey11Ireland36U.S.A32Israd13Venezuela151塑墼!!!竺翌!!!∑垫一墨——●AlowscoremeallSthecountrycanbeclassifiedasOnethatdoesnotlikeuncertainty;ahighscoreisassociatedwithculturesthatdonotfeeluncomfortablewithuncertainty.Source:AdaptedfromGeertHofstede,Culture'sConsequences."InternationalDifferencesinWork-RelatedValues03everlyHills:Sage,1980).4)MasculinityandFemininityAsformasculinityandfemininity,basedOilhisidea,theyareusednottorefertomen2landwomen,butrathertothedegreetowhichmasculineorfemininewaitsprevail.MasculiuityshowstheextenttowhichthedominantvaluesinasocietyaremaleorientedandiSassociatedwithsuchbehaviorsasambition,differentiatedsexroles,achievement,theacquisitionofmoney,andsignsofmanliness.Inthiscase,wemayfindJapan,Austria,Greece,SouthAfrica,Ireland,Italy,thePhilippines,endMexicoarethoseculturesthattendtowardamasculineworldview(Table4),wheremenaretaughttobedomineeringandassertiveandwomennurturingandobedient.Inthosecultures,mendomostofthetalkingandtakeanactiveroleindecisionmaking.Table4RankingofFortyCountriesorRegionsonMasculinityandFemininityArgentinaJapanAustraliaMexicoAustriaNetherlandsBdgiumNewZealandBrazilNorwayCanadaPakistanChile博“2加筋殂MPern●6鲳:2剪丝nColombiaPhilippinesDenmarkPortugalFinlandSingaporeFranceSouthMricaGermanyn”弱凹9SpainGreatBritainSwedenGreeceSwitzerlandHongKongTaiwanIndiaThailandIranTurkeyIrelandU.S.AIsrael“勰,笛Venezuela站心暑;柏”拍”坠坐兰!竺竖!!!坚!苎兰垒+AUghscoremeansthecountrycarlbeclassifiedasonethatfavorsfemininetraits;alowerscoreisassociatedwithculturesthatprefermasculinetraits.Source:AdaptedfromGeertHofstede,Culture'sConsequences."InternationalDifferences加22Culturesthatvaluef翻nininity勰atraitstresscaringandnurturingbehaviors.Thatkindofculturemaintainsthatmenneednottobeassertiveandthattheycanassumenurturingroles;italsopromotessexualequalityandbelievesthatpeopleandtheenvironmenta1"eimportant.Genderrolesinfemininesocieties9lremol-efluidthaninmas叫妇societies.NationssuchasSweden,Norway,Finland,Denmark,andtheNetherlandstendtowardafeminineworldview.2.KluckhohnsandStrodtbeck’S、,甜ueOrientationsAfterHofstede’Sinitialefforts,nnlnerousotherstudieshavebeenconductedwhichresultedinsomecriticismagainsthiswork.nleKluckhohnsandStrodtbecksupplyUSwithournexttaxonomyforanalyzingculturalpatterns.ARcrexamininghundredsofcultures,theyreachedtheconclusionthatpeopleturntotheircultureforanswerstothefollowingfivequestions:1)Whatisthecharacterofhumannature?2)Whatisherelationofhumankindtonature?3)Whatistheorientationtowardstime'7.4)Whatisthevalueplacedonactivity?5、Whatistherelationshipofpeopletoeachother?Theanswerstothesecrucialquestionsserveasthebasisforthefivevalueorientationsthatareattheheartoftheirapproach.(Table5)Table5FiveValueOrientationsforAnalyzingCulturalPatterns+OrientationValuesandBehaviorsMixtureofGoodandHumanNatureBasicallyEvilEvnBasicallyGoodPeoplePeopletheRelationshipofSuhjectPeopleinHarmonyMasterHumankindtoNaturetoNatureWi伍NatureofNatureFutureSenseofTimePastOrientedPresentOrientedorientedActivityBeingBeinginBecomingDoingSocialAuthoritarianGroupOrientedIndividualistic!!!!鲤竺曼!垒垫!+BasedonKluckhohn,KluckhoIlll.andStrodtbeckHowever,acarefulanalysiswillenableyoutofindsomeofthesRtnepointsdiscussedarebyHofstede.Anyhowweshouldsayitisquiteunderstandablebecausetheydiscussingthemeaningfulvaluesfoundinallcultures.Theoverlappingpartsstrongproofthattheybothtouchthedeepstructuresofcultures.bothbeacan1)HumanNatureHeretheOrientationcharacterofhumannature?”servesoutasquestion“WhatisthetheCOrequestionwhichneedsinitialconsideration.Onlyafterweworkthea11swel"callwemakenaturejudgmentsabouthumanbehaviors.Discussionsofhumanusuallydealwitllquestionsofgoodnessandra60nality.Peoplehaveraisedquestionsaboutgoodandevilforalmostaslongaswehumanshavehadthreelogicaldivisions:evilatTheUnitedStatesisaoneasen,q@ofsel£Astothevariousanswers,theyhaveend,goodandevilinthemiddle,andgoodattheother.arecaseinpointwhobelievespeopleintrinsicallyevilwhichinheritedfromtheirPuritanancestors.Inthiswaytheybelievetheyare‘'perfectible”,whichmeanswithgoodness.ButinmanypartsofEurope,withitsstrongtraditionoflearningandeducation,theyholdtheideathatpeoplecanconstanthardwork,controlandself-discipline,theycanachievebeevilandgood.Howtheyendupdependsontheeventsintheirlives.AndthemostextremeviewofgoodnessChina.BuddhismmaintainsthatwearccanbefoundintheBuddhisttradition,suchastobompureandarcclosestwhatiscalled“lovingiswhatmakeskindness'’whenUSevil.weenterthisworld.Hencepeoplearegood,andOUrculture2、RelationshipofHumankindtoNatureThedifferencesinconceptionsoftherelationshipbetweenproducedistinctframesofreferenceforhmnanendistheviewthatclaimshumanbeingsarehumanityandnatureonedesires,attitudes,andbehaviors.Atsubjecttonature.Culturesthatholdthisorientationbelievethatthemostpowerfulforcesoflifeareoutsidetheircontr01.Whethertheforcebeagod,fate,ormagic,apersoncannotovercomeitandmustthereforelearntoacceptit.AttheotherendofthescaleistheviewthatcompelsUStoconqueranddirectthefomesofnaturetoOUradvantage.ThisfeatureisverystrikinginthewesternworldbecauseasisknowntoalltheyhavealongtraditionofvaluingtechnologyandscienceOVernature.3)TimeOrientationBasedontheirfindings,culturesvarywidelyintheirconceptsoftime.Wheretheydifferisinthevalueplacedonthepast,present,andfutureandhoweachinfluencesinteraction.Past-o血ntedculturesbelievestronglyinthesignificanceofpriorevents.History,establishedreligions,andtraditionareextremelyimportanttothesecultures,SOthereisas灯ongbeliefthatthepastshouldbetheguideformakingdecisionsanddeterminingtruth.China,Japan,andGreatBritainsharetheattemptstoclingtothepast.Present-orientedculturesholdthatthemomenthasthemostimportance.Forthem,thefutureisvague,ambiguoUS,andunknownandwhatdoesmatterexistsinhereandnow.Andforthem,enjoymentshouldbegivenpriorityto,sothatthepaceoflifeinthosecountriesisnotthatfast,suchasMexico,thePhilippinesandLatinAmericaAboutfuture-orientedcultures,suchastheUnitedStates,emphasizethefutureandexpecttobemuchbetterandnicerthanthepresent.Intheireyes,thefutureiswherehappinessistobefound,whichmakesthemoptimistic.WeCanseesomecluesintheconlmonproverb“Ifatfirstyoudon’tsucceed,try,扛y,and缸yagain.”4、ActivityOrientationThisorientationreferstothewayacultureviewsactivity.Beingorientationreferstosporaanconsactivity.Forexample,inMexico,peopletakegreatdelightintalkingforhourswithfamily’friends,andtheircompanions,fortheybelievethattheactof“being’’isoneofthemaingoalsandjoysoflife.IIlmostcases.Mexicanswillnotworkforextrahourseveniftheywillreceivedoublepay.Being-in-becomingorientationoftencorrelateswithculturesthatvalueaspirituallifemorethanamaterialone.Doingorientationdescribesactivityinwhichaccomplishmentaremeasurablebystandardsexternaltotheactingagent.ThisorientationmostcharacterizesthedominantAmericunculture.Thefamousoldsaying‘'Actionsspeakloudthanwords”isaperfectreflection.5)Relational(Social)OrientationTllisvalueorientationisconcernedwiththewaysinwhichpeopleperceivetheirrelationshipswithotherswhichsharesalotofthingsinconunonwithHofstede’Sdimensionsofindividualismandpowerdistance.3.Hall’SHi曲-contextandLow-contextCommunicationHallmadehisowncontributiontothestudyofculturepatternsbyofferingusanothereffectivemffansofexaminingculturalsimilaritiesanddifferencesinbothperceptionandcommunication.Bythenameofhighorlowcontext,hebasedhiscategories011thedegreetowhichmeaningcomesfromthesettingsorfromthewordsbeingexchanged.饵.T.Hall1976)Halldefinesthesetwotermsinthefollowingnlanner:“Ahigllcontext(HC)communicationormessageisoneinwhichmostoftheinformationisalreadyintheperson,whileverylittleisinthecoded,explicitlytransmittedpartofthemessage.Alowcontext(Lc)communicationisjusttheopposite;i.e.,themassoftheinformationisvestedintheexplicitcode.”(E.T.Hall1976)Toputitplain,inhi曲・contextcultures,suchasJapanese,Chinese,LatinAmericans,NativeAmericans,andKorean,informationisprovidedthroughgestures,theuseofspace,andovensilence.Meaningisalsoconveyed‘'throughstatus(age,sex,education,familybackground,fide,andaffiliations)andthroughanindividual’Sinformalfriendsandassociates.”(Foster1992)Sincepeopleinthiscasehavemultimdesofcommonexperience,muchin-depthbackgroundinformationisnotrequired.Inlow-contextcultures,likeGermany,Swiss,andAmerica,peopledonotsharealargepoolofcommonexperiences;thereforeeachtimetheyinteractwithotherstheyneeddetailedbackgroundinformation.I『nderthecircumstances.wemayconcludethattheAsianmodeofcommunicationisoftenindirectandimplicit;whilewesterncommunicationtendstobedirectandexplicit,i.e..everythingneedstobestated.ChapterThreeAGeneralReviewontheRelationshipbetweenCultureandManagementI.RelationshipbetweenCultureandManagement1.CultureAffectsA11BusinessFunctionsEquipped诵thsomebasictheoriesconcerningculture,weshouldfilrtherourStIldybytakingculturetothebusinesscontext.Inthiscase,weshouldbefullyawareofonething,i.e..cultureaffectsallbusinessfunctions.Whenpeopleworkinsocietiesandculturesthatdifferfromtheirown,theproblemstheyencounterindealingwithasinglesetofculturesaremultipliedbyanumberofculturalsetstheyfindineachoftheirforeignmarkem.Culturaldifferenceisall-pervasive,andconsequanflyitmayexenaninfluenceoneveryaspectofinternationalbusinessoperation.Inmarketing,forexample,thewidevariationinattitudesandvaluespreventmanyfirmsfromusingthesamemarketingmixinallmarkets.What’Smore,internationalizationincreasesthecomplexityofanorganizationandoftheenvironmentwithwhichitisconcerned.Theincreaseincrossborderbusinessactivitiesbadledtoagrowinginterestinculturalandbusinessspecificdevelopmentsandthelinkageswithinstitutionalcontexts.Theimerrelationbetweenpersonnel/humanreSOL'rrCeSmanagementandnationalindustrialrelationsmeansthatcompanymanagememisnotautonomousindeterminingpersonnelpolicy.HumanResourcesManageme吐organizingandstrategyaresubjecttodifferentsocialrules,normsandvalues.Thechallengeisalsomademorecomplicatedbysignificantcross-culturaldifferencesbetweenorganizationsandgeographicregious.Apartfromtheabove-mentioned,productionmanage船havefo啦dthatattitudestowardchangec髓alsoseriouslyinfluencetheacceptanceofnewproductionmethods.Alltoooften,unf矾unately,peoplewhoarefamiliarwithonlyoneculturalpatternmaybelievetheyhaveanawarenessofculturaldifferenceselsewhere,wheninrealitytheydonot.Unlesstheyhavehadoccasionstomakecomparisons嘶血othercultures。theyarcpmbablynotevenawareoftheimportantfeaturesoftheirOWILTheyareprobablyalso27oblivioustothefactthatmanysocietiesconsidertheirculturesuperiortoallo吐峙rsandthattheirattemptstointroducethe‘‘Germanway'’orthe“Americanway"maybemetwithstubbornresistance.2.Managementiscultm'e.AccordingtoPeterDrunk,anAmericanmanagerialexpert,managementisnotonlyasubject,butacultureitself,whichcontainsitsownlanguage,values,andbeliefs.Managementisalsoasocialfunctionwhichisimbeddedinvalues,traditions,beliefs,andthepoliticalsystemofthesociety.Actually,theSO—called“managementculture’’meanstheacculturationandreflectionofacenaillcultureheldbyagivengrouporsocietyintotheprocessofmanagement.Itmainlycontainsguidelines,philosophy,andthestyleofpractice.AsJapancontinuestogrowinglobaleconomicdominanceandtheUnitedStatescontinuestodecline,theroleofJapanese-stylemanagementinJapan'seconomicSUCCESShasbecomeanactiveareaofconjectureanddebatef-orscholars,journalists,andthegeneralpublic.Duringthe’’JapanBoom”oftheearly1980s,mostpopularandscholarlyattentionwasfocusedonJapanesemanagementinJapan.Nowlet’Shaveacomparisontogetherbeforejumpingtoanyrashconclusions.DominantmanagerialvaluesintheUnitedStatesinclude“achievementandSUCCESS,beliefinhardwork,pmgrnatism,optimism,Puritanism,rationality,impersonalityininterpersonalworkrelationships,equalityofopportunity,acceptanceofcompetition,andindividualism.”限.B.Peterson,1993)Andthere“managerisaculturalhero.”Management,basedonHofstede’Sidea,‘'refersnotonlytotheprocessbutalsotothemanagersasaclassofpeople.Thisclassdoesnotownabusinessbmsellsitsskillstoactonbehalfoftheownersanddoesnotproducepersonallybutisresponsibleformakingothersproduce,throughmotivation.Membersofthisclasscan'yahierastatusandmanyAmericanboysandgirlsaspiretotherole.”WhileinJapan,thestoryisquitedifferent.UnliketheAmericanstyle,Japanesedonotshareastrongsenseofmanagement.Forthem,thekeycomponentoftheorganizationisthe‘'workergroup”whocanexpectlifelongemploymentandadvancementaccordingtoseniority.Nowonderwhenitcomestothemomentthe28JapanesepersonnelmanagerjustmedkeepingachemistonthepayrolleventhoughthecompanyDOlongerneededhisexpertise,theirAmericancounterpartswouldctaimitridiculous.Insteadofgrowth,animportantfocusforJapanesemanagersiskeepingmeningood-payingjobsinordertomaintainsocialstabilitySOthat‘‘inthelongestslumpinJapan’Spostwarhistory,theunemploymentroteamongJapanesemenbetweentheagesof30and55isallof2.1percent.”(Powell,1995)Justbec.augeofthissystemoflifetimeemploymentthatfocuses011theworkergroup,theJapanese“aretoalargeextentcontrolledbytheirpeergroupratherthanbytheirmanager.”(Hofstede,1993)“WhileAmericanmanagersemphasizesupervisorystyle,decisionmakingandcontrolmechanism,theJapanesealeallconcerned诵thcommunicationprocess,interdepartmentalrelations,andpaternalisticapproach.”fR.Culpan&0.Kucukenmiroglu,1993)AsfortheAmericanstyleofmanagement,itstTonglystressestechnology,equipment,rulesandregulations,organizationalstructureandeventhefinancialstatement,whichareconsidered‘'hard’’factors.Onthecontrary,theirJapanesepeersemphasizeaims,objectives,伽m,andvaluecriteda,whichCanbedefinedas“soft'’factorsthatarecloselyconnectedwiththesocialculture.ThepracticeintherealworldtellsUSthatthoseSO-called“soft'’factorsareindeedthekeyelementtoSuccessofmanagementintheoperations.3.Cultureservesasameansofmanagement.Duringthedevelopmentprocessofwehumanbeings,cultureisalwaysactingasakindofcondition.Andculture,asameansofmanagement,hasbeeninternalizedinto“corporateculture’’or“organizationalculture”inthecourseofmanagingabusiness.Theconceptofcorporatecultureisattractivebecauseitmayprovidesomelanguageforspeakingaboutthe“personalities”oforganizations.Actualorganizationsseemtohavepersonalitieswhicharefairlystableovertimeandindependentfromtheiractualmembers.Itshouldbeadmittedthatcorporatecultureisagoodwaytotraintheemployeestoachievecohesionamongthem;oneoftheimpetustomotivatethem;thefoundationfortheorganizationalreformsandinnovations;andthemearl¥topromotecorporateimageandreputation.InrecentyearsgrowingnumberofmanagershaverealizedthatcultureCallbeboth锄assetandaliability,andithassuchasubtlebutpowerfulinfluenceonorganizationallife.Thenasaresult,a20constantaI:lenlionandSU℃SSoncorpora=IeculturehasbecomethemoststrikingfeaturvinUSaIlthedramaticchangesenterprisesundergo.AmericanscholarPhilipHarrisprovidedwithaclearsunlmaryasfollow:1)Culturecanmaketheemployeesidentifythemselveswiththeorganization,bywhichcanmeansthefalthfidnessandworkingefficiencybeenhanced.intotheforeignculturethatone2)ItbearsagreatsignificanceSOtohaveaninsightisinvolvedin.Onlybydoingcoordination.Canhepromotetheinterculturalcommunicationand3)Athoroughknowledgeenableoneoftheconceptandlong-establishedfeaturesofcultureonCantounderstandthecorporatecultureanditsinfluenceculturetheorganization.incross-cultural4)Ade印i璐ightintoCanhelpremoveallthebarriersmanagement.5)Asensitivityareworkingin.tocultureCanhelponehaveabetterknowledgeoftheenvironmentthey们nestrengthtocomprehendanothercultureCancanhelppeopleinMNCsacceptadifferentcallcultureeasily,inwhichwaytheyenrichtheirculturalexperiences.Anditalsoreducecultureshock;enhancetheiradaptabilitytothenewculturaloverenvironment;smooththedi蚯curiesincommu_n_icationaswell.4.InteractionsbetweenCultureandWiththeManagementmanagementdevelops,whichmaybeevolutionofculture,thetheoryoffurtherinfluencedbythemode,levelandorientationofculture.Andtheviseversaisalsoatrue.Furthermore,asisknowntoall,cultureasreactionpartofthesuperstructurereceivesafromtheeconomicbases.Managementascomponentofculture,whosedevelopmentwillpromoteproductiveexample,theestablishmentofaforces,canalsoenrichthecontentofculture。Forcertaincorporateculturewilladefinitelyextendtheconnotationofculturebyactingassubculture.onII.TheImpactofCulturalDifferenceThereisanManagementinMNCsonesabundanceofdefinitionsaboutMNCwhichrangefromverysuccincttoverysophisticatedones.n塘UnitedNationsdefinesmultinationalcorporationsas‘'enterprisesthatownofcontrolproductionorservicefacilitiesoutsidethecountryinwhichtheyarebased'’.Thekeyelementsamultinationalcorporationnormallyincludes:l、beingallenterprise,2)having011eormoredecision-makingcenters,havingcommonpolicy,and3)alloftheseendtiesarcsharingtheknowledge,l旧SOUrCesandresponsibilitieswitheachother.Thesecorporationsoriginatedearlyinthe20thcenturyandproliferatedafterWbddWarII.Typically,amultinationalcorporationdevelopsnewproductsinitsnativecou_n_tryandmanufacturesthemabroad,oReninThirdWorldnations,thusgainingtradeadvantagesandeconomiesoflaborandmaterials.1.FeaturesofMultinationalCorporationThereisagradnafionfromorganizationsundertakinginternational缸-adetointemationalbusinessenterprises.Asummaryofthemethodsbywhichanationalmanufacturingorganizationcouldoperateinternationallyillustratestheproblemofdefinition.However'RoyBloughprovidesussomeverybasicfeaturesthatacompanyshouldhaveinthiscase.、1)solicitpurchasesbyforei印buyersinoneormorecountriesandshiptotheminwholesalelots,leavingtheful'thel"distributionofthegoodstothem;2)marketanddistributethegoodstotheirfinalusersintheforeigncountryinwhichcaseitmaymakearrangementswithlocaldistributorsorestablishadistributionnetworkofitsown;3)establishafactoryinthecountryinwhichitissellingorplanstosellandproduceforsaleinthirdcountriesandalsointhehomecountry;4)contactwithforeignproducerstopurchasefromthemgoodswhichthecompanydistributeswhetherinthecountryofproduction,thirdcountries,orthehomecountry;5)sellitspatents,technicalknow-how,and/or心ademarkstoacompanyinaforeigncountryorlicensetheiruseforatermofyearsinexchangeforperiodicroyaltypayments;Dundcaaketosupplymanagement,atafee,foraforeignmanufacturingenterprisewhichitdoesnotownorinwhichithasonlyaminorityinterest;317)combineanyoftheabovemethods,dependingonthemarketwithwhichitdeals.Theseoperationaldifferencesarecomplica把dbytheformswhichtherelationshipbetweentheparentandthedaughtercompaniescarttakeL11诅erdifferingnationallegishtionswithdifferentdegreesoffinancialcommitmentonthepartoftheparentcompany.Examplesare"1)Brancho伍ce:aforeignlocalofficeoftheparentcompanyhavingnoindependentorcorporatestatus.2)Subsidiary:aforeignfirmestablishedundernationallawofthecounty,whosecapitalstockis50%ormoreconlzolledbytheparentcompany.3)Jointcompany:aforeignfinninwhichtheparemcompanyfinancialinterestandforeignfinancialinterestareequallydivided.4)Affdiate:aforeignfirminwhichthecapitalinterestoftheparticipatingparentcompanyislessthan50%51Sub-subsidiary:asubsidiaryoraffiliatenotestablisheddirectlybytheparentcompany(orsub-affiliate)butbyanothersubsidiaryoraffiliateofthelatter.砸ssituationCanbefiLrthcrcomplicatedsincethesubsidiarycanitselfbeinthehomecountryorinaforeigncountry.Thenwecanfurtherconcludethatasamultinationalcoq)omtionisbasedonitshomecounUyandoperatesinmolethanonelocation,anMNChastwomajorareasofconcerns:thehomecountrywhereitsheadquarteroftensitesandthehostcountriesinwhichitdoesbusiness.SoonecharacteristicoftheMNCsisthattheiraffiliatesmustberesponsivetoanumberofimportantenvironmentalforces,includingcompetitors,customers,suppliers,financialinstitutions,andgovernment.Insomecases,thesameforcesareatworkinboththehomeandthehostcountryenvironments.Forexample,manyofSONY’ScompetitorsintheJapanesemarketarethesameasthoseinEurope:Samsung,Philips,Toshiba,andsoon.11硷secondcharacteristicisthatitdrawsonacolnmonpoolofresources.includingassets,patents,trademarks,information,andhumanresources.Sincetheaffiliatesaleallpartofthesamecompany,theyhavetheadvantagestoaccesstoassetsthatareoftennotavailabletooutsiders.Costscanbeloweredandefficiencycanbeincreasedthroughthe廿铀坞孤时onofinformationandtechnologybetweenaffiliatesandp孤钌1tcompany.Thethirdcharacteristicisthatitsaffiliates眦linkedbyacomInonstrategicvision.Eachmultinationalcorporationoperatesunderaworld-wi(1enetworkwhichismadeupofparentcorporationandmanyaffiliates.ItwillformulateitsstrategicplanasawholeSOastobringalltheaffiliatestogetherinaharmomomway.Suchplanswill,ofcourse,varyamongMNCs.Sometimesaverycentralizedplanisdrawnup;othertimesadecentralizedplanisemployed,andsomeUseacombinationofbothtypesofplantosetmajorsalesandprofitgoalsforalloperationsworldwide.Thestrategicplanwillalsoaddressthefinancialandhumanresourceneedsoftheaffiliates,transferringfundsandassigningpeopleasneeded.2.TheImpactofCulturalDifferenceonManagementinMNCsCompanies.who谢shtogrow,cannotdependentirelyondomesticbusinessandhencerequirecontrollinglargermarket.Thus,moreandmorecompaniesareseekingtheirwaytogointernational.Bynowtheglobalizationofbusinesshasnotbeenrestrictedtoahandfulofcountries--itisaninternationaltrend.Companiesthatwishtocompetesuccessfullyintheworldmarketneedtodevelopaglobalorientation.Internationalizationincreasesthecomplexityofallorganizationandoftheenvironmentwitllwhichitisconcemed.Theincreaseincrossborderbusinessactivitieshadledtoagrowingconcernintheinteractionsbetweencultureandbusinessdevelopments.Nowadays,therapidexpansionofmultinationalcorporationshasincreasedtheawarenessofcross-culturalmanagemem.Ithasbeenwidelyacceptedthatmanagefialvaluesarenotthesamethroughouttheworld.Therefore,multinationalcorporationsmaybemakingcostlydecisionsiftlleyassnmethatcorporatepolicieswillreceivethesameattention,understandingoracceptanceintheirbranchesovertheworld.Theredoexiststrikingdifferencesinvalues,norms,languages,traditions,customs,beliefs,andthinkingmechanismamongcultures.Therefore,whenpeoplecomingfromdifferentculturesgettogether,therearechancesthattheyhavetotallydifferentideasintermsofconceptandmodeofmanagement.Inthatcase,theirdisapprovalofoneanother’Sviewswillbevery33likelytoresultinculturefrictionsorevencultureconflictswhichwillbringaboutmoredisastrousconsequences.Theniftheyfailtosmoothoverallthemisunderstandingsandconflicts,thoseseemin#ytrivialthingsareboundtobecomethebiggestbarriertothedevelopmentofthemultinationalcorporations,evenleadtothecollapseofthewholeoperation.1)DifferenceinEmployees’NeedsinDifferentCultureBackgroundBased0nAbrahamMaslow’SopinioninhisbookATheoryofHumanMotivation,weknowthathumanneedsfallintofivecategoriesincluding‘'thephysiologicalneeds,thesafetyneeds,theloveneeds,theesteemneeds,andtheneedsforself-actualization.”Theformertwoarebasicneeds,whilethelatterthreearehigherones.Humanneedsarrangethemselvesinhierarchiesofpre-potency.撇istosay,theappearanceofone’Snewneedusuallyrestsonthepriorsatisfactionofanother,morepre-potentneed.Manisaperpetuallywantinganimal.AlsononeedOrdrivecanbetreatedasifitwereisolatedOrdiscrete;everydriveisrelatedtothestateofsatisfactionordissatisfactionofotherdrives.ThenintheCaseofmeetingtheneedsofemployees,Weshouldbearonethinginourminds,i.e.,itwillbeanever-lastingandever-challengingprocess.Asurveyconductedinjointventuresontheemployee’Sneeds,showsthatemployeesfromChinesesidewhowereatthemomentbelow45yearsoldgiveprioritytopaymentandwelfare,followedbyreputation,chancestofurthertheirstudyabroad,andworkingconditionsinsequence.Astothewelfareissue,theirconceptsaretenthousandmilesawayfromtheirmanagers’.Takeworkingconditionsasanexample.Managersfromwesternculturesbelievethattheimprovementofworkingconditionsshouldbeconsideredaspartofwelfarethatemployeesaresupposedtoenjoy.Asaresult.theymaketissueandsoapsavailableinthewashrooms,andequiptheworkplace丽tlldriIll【machines,becausetheybelievewhattheydoCanbeviewedasallembodimentofthewelfare.However,theChineseemployeesfailtoidentifythoseStUffSaswelfareofferedbytheiremployersbecametheyholdthatnothingCanbeyourwelfareunlesstheyaretakenhome.Underthecireurnstances,itisveryeasytopredicttheresultofthisattempt.Onlyseveraldayslater,managersnoticethatallthosestuffsplacedinpublicplacesdisappearassoonasthey34孤l'i'Vethere.Thencomesthereputationissue,anothercsseinpoint.Incompaniesyourrifleofpositionmaybethemajorpartinthisreputationissueonapersona/basis.Forexample,JohnsonisthepersonnelmanagerinanAsianbranchofaEuropeancorporation.Afterseveralturnsofinterviews,herecruitedseveralChinesetoworkunderhim.ThenhefoundthatwhenitcomestomakingdecisionsevenifthatWaswithintheirrangeofduties,theywouldaskforpermissionimmediatelywiththepurposetoavoidbeingblamed.Butinhismind,hehasentitledthemtheauthoritytomakedecisionswithintheirduty.Whenhecametoaskforexplanations,theyclaimedthatbasedontherifleinthejobdescriptiontheywerehiredtobereceptionistsratherthanmanagersorassistantmanagers.SotheywouldnevermakeanydecisionseventhoughtheyWereauthorized.ARerrealizingtheyweretellingthetruthratherthanjokingJohnsonfeltalialeupset.Ifeveryonewereemifledmanager,thenwhoelsewouldtheymanage?Atlast,heworkedoutawaytosolvetheproblembyprovidingthemdifferenttitlessuchaspersonnelmanager,personnelincharge,whilehecreatedhimselfahigherone,chiefinspector.Asaresult,everybodyWassatisfiedeventhoughtheygotneitherpromotionnorincreaseinsalaryinarealsense.HowdidJohnsonroaken?Actually,heonlyconsideredonething,i.e.,thedifferentattitudetowardsreputation,andriflesbetweencultures.HejustgottonoticethesignificanceofthefaceissueinChina,especiallywhenpeopleaddressyou.AhigherriflecouldbeveryimportanttoChineseemployees,whichwouldmakenosensetotheAmericanorEuropeanemployeeswhoaremuchmorepragmaric.21DifferenceinEmployees’MotivesinDifferentCultureBackgroundMotive,asaproductofculture,isclosedlinked谢tllthesatisfactionofthepersonalneeds.Motiveformedinac@rtainculturalsettingwillaffectpeople’Sviewstowardsworkandlife.OneofthemostprominentapproachestomotivesinorganizationalbehaviorcomesfromtheworkofMcClellandandhiscolleagues(McClelland.1961;McClelland&Boyatzis,1982;McClelland&Burnham,1976)onneedsforachievement,affiliation,andpower.McClelland’Sworksuggeststhatallpeoplehavesomedegreeofthesethreemotives.111eachievementmotivepropelspeopletoperformintermsofastandardof35excellence,seekingtheaccomplishmentofatask,challenge,orcompetition.maffiliationtheycanmotivepushespeopletowardestablishing,maintaining,andrestoringrelationshipswithothers..nlepowermotivepushespeopletowardcontroltheworkorstatusandsituationsinwhichactionsofothers.Paradigml:theAchievementMotiveIntheachievementmotiveparadigm,behaviorssuchchangesthataffectothers,refrainingfromareashelpingothers,communicatinginunitmeetingscomplaining,andparticipatingallconsideredtobecriticaltotheoverallaccomplishmentofthe斌project,objective,aormission.Inaway,theachievement-motivatedemployeesviewthejobfromaremorerole,holisticperspective.Thosethingsnotreallyviewedassomethingbeyondseeone’SbutratherkeystoSUCCESS.Theachievement-orientedcitizenscontributiontotheworkunit,helpingtheunittheireffortsasauniqueoperatemoreefficiently(Organ,1988).Meanwhile,theyalsodemandfeedbackeitherfromtheirmanagersorfromtheircoworkers.Intermsoftheneedforfeedback,theachievement-orientedemployeesaremotivatedimprovefuturetoperformanceandstrivetowardsuccess.Feedbackmustbehelpfulandfair.Theemployeesexpectrespectandfairtreatmentfrommanagersandothers.Whenfeedbackiswithheld,inaccurate,Orunfair,theachievement-orientedloseinterestindoingthoselittlethingsabove—mentioned.Soascitizenswilllikelymanagers,ifthereandexistachievement-orientedcitizensintheorganization,neverfailtogiveaccuratefairfeedbacktowhattheyhavecontributedtotheorganization.Paradigm2:theAffiliationMotiveVanDyneeta1.(1995)utilmedtheterm”affiliative”asarethecategoryofextra-roleabehaviors,suggestingthatthesebehaviorsexhibitedasmeanstoestablishandmaintainrelationshipswitllpeople01"theorganization.Theaffiliation-orientedcitizensplacevalueonpeopleandrelationships.Insimpleterms,theseserveemployeesareisportrayedbya”people-oriented,”seekingtofocusonothers.Mliletheachievementmotivetaskaccomplishment,theaffiliationinformationbecauseofitsmotiveisbesthelpotherstotheportrayedaSacommitmenttoservingpeople.11地affiliation-orientedcitizensbecausetheyneedthehelp.orcommunicatebenefitreceivers.Theaffiliation.orientedemployeeswillexpresscommitmenttothepeopleintheorganization—coworkers,managers,andsuperv/sorsalike.Actsofhelping,communicating,cooperating,andandremainwithinthegroup.Aslongparticipatingallemergefromtheirdesiretobelongtoastheyseethegroupasvaluingtheircontributionstothegroup,theywillcontinuetheirarcpractice.Forthemservicetopeopleistoppriority.Itisalsopossiblethatthesepeopleapromptedmorebyspiritualvaluesthanothertypesofcitizens,suggestingmoraldevelopment(Kohlberg,1969).Paradigm3:thePowerMotiveThereareRrehigherlevelofmanyorganizationalbehaviorsthatsupporttheorganizationonononehand,yetveryself-servingastheotherhand.Thepower-orientedemployeesseecontributiontotheorr≯nizationameansaretoacquirepowerandstatuswithauthorityfiguresintheaorganization.Whattheyandtheirowncareeracrosstodofortheorganizationisdrivenbycommitmenttoselfagenda.Thepower-orientedcitizensprovidehelptoothers,orcommurlicztetobedepartments,orputintheireffortstoorganizationalprocessesinordervisibletothosepeopleinpower.AslongasthetargetauthorityfigurerecognizestheoccurreBceoftheirefforts,thepower-seekerismotivatedtocontinue.Whentheirserviceisexhibitedinlessvisibleenvironments,self-promotionmeanswilllikelybeusedtomaketothemvisibleconsideredastoatherightpeople.Inthisparadigm,theirservicetheorganizationisformofpoliticalcapital.Thepower-orientedcitizensinvestinsuchcapitalwiththepurposeofpursuingmorepowerinreturnwithsuchexhibitions.withsharpereyestovalue.Theknowledgeofthethreemotiveparadigmswillequipmanagersaevaluatetheemployees’attitudetowardswork,whichbearssignificantmanagerialWhenitcomestoassignatasktopeopleunderthem,managersmayhaveprepareddifferentapproachesfordifferentemployees.Forinstance,totheachievement-orientedcitizenstheyshouldclaimthatthetaskisfulfilltoarealchallengeSOthattheyCangetmotivatedtothat.Whileinfacedwiththeaffiliation-orientedtheyshouldadvisethataskingothersjoinwillbeworkable.Andwhentheyarefacingthepower-orientedcitizens,carlmanagersshouldmakeclearthattheyenjoytheleadershipinfinishingthattask.Bycanadoptinguniquewaystocommunicatewithdifferentemployees,theyachievethebest37outcome.However,thesemotivesenjoyquitedifferentlevelsofpopularityindifferentcultures.Eventhesamemotivemayhavedifferentperformanceindifferentcultures.Forinstance,inAmericawherepersonalachievementandindividualismArehighlyvalued,thentheachievementmotivewillbethedominantone.andtheaffiliationmotivethingtowillbethelastconsider.WhileinJapan,theaffiliationmotivewillbemoreimportantthanthatintheU.S.Aalthoughtheyalsovaluetheachievementmotive.Therefore,wemayconcludethatacertainmotiveparadigmmayonlybetrueinonecultureandcannotfunctioninanother;thesameneedsmayevolveintodifferentmotivesindifferentcultures;eventheexactlysamemotiveCanbetriggeredbydifferentcultures.SoformanagersonlywhentheydifferencescanCallactORtheunderstandingoftheimpactofculturaltheymaketheirwayofmanagingmoreeffective.in3)DifferenceBackgroundEmployees’AttitudeandBeliefinDifferentCultureEveryculturehasasetofattitudesandbeliefsandthatinfluencenearlyallaspectsofitshumanbehaviorandhelpbringordertoasocietyindividuals.nebemoremanagersCanlearnaboutcertainkeyattitudes,thebetterpreparedtheywillastounderstandwhypeoplebehavetheydo,especiallywhentheirreactionsdifferfTomthosethatthetomanagershavelearnedThereareexpectindealingwiththeirownpeople.someofvitalimportancebytothebusinesspeopleamongthewidevarietyofsubjectscoveredattitudesandbeliefsincludingattitudestowardtime,towArdachievementandwork,andtowardchange.(1)AttitudestowardTimeThisculturalcharacteristicprobablypresentssomeadaptationisplacedonproblems.TimeisimportantintheUnitedStates,andmuchemphasisseeallit.IftheAmericansmustwaitpasttheappointedhourtonotgivingindividual,theyfeelinsulted.Becausethispersonistheirmeetingtheimportanceitdeserves.Yetthewaltcouldmeanjusttheoppositeelsewhere.38However,MidgeEasternconceptoftimeisquitedifferentfromtheAmerica’S.SoAmericansalwayscomplainlikethat‘‘AlotofthemisunderstandingsbetweenMiddleEastel"nersandforeignersareduetotheirdifferentconceptsoftimeandspace.Atworst,thereisnoconceptaialloftimeintheMiddleEast.Albest.thereisasortofopen-endedconcept.”AnEgyptianbusinessmaneverstates,“Thesimplewristwatchis,insomemspeets,muchtoosophisticatedaninstrumentfortheMiddieEast.OneofthefirstthingsaforeignershouldlearninEgyptistoignorethesecondhand.TheminutehandCanalsobeanobstacleifheexpectsEgyptianstobeasconscious嬲heoftime.’’AnothercaSeinpointisthatAmericansareprompt,butfewculturesgivethesanleimportancetotimeasAmericansandEuropeansdo.IfanyappointmentismadewithagroupofGermanstoseethemat12noon,theAmericansCanbesuretheywillbethere,buttogetthesameresponsefromaBrazilian,theArnedcansmustsaynoonEnglishhour.Ifnot.theBrazilianmayshowupanytimebetweennoonand2o’clock.Comparethis谢mJapan,whereadescriptionofanapartmentintherentalcontractincludesthetimeinminutesrequiredtowalktothenearesttrainstation.Moreover,theAmericansalsotakegreatprideintheirdirectnesswhichisinterpretedbymanyforeignersasbeingbrashandmdc.AlthoughAmericansbelieveitisexpedienttogettothepointinadiscussion,thisattitudeoftenirritatesothers.Time-honoredformalitiesareavitalpartofdoingbusinessandhelpestablishamicablerelations,whichareconsideredbypeopleinmanycountriestobeanecessaryprerequisitetobusinessdiscussions.Anyattempttomovethenegotiationsalongbyignoringsomeoftheacceptedcourtesiesinvitesdisaster.DeadlinesCanhavetotallydifferentimplications,too.InFarEasterncountriessuchasJapan,anAmericanmaybeaskedhowlongheorsheplanstostayatthefirstmeeting.Thennegotiationsarepurposelynotfinalizeduntilafewhoursbeforetheforeigner’Sdeparture,whentheJapaneseknowtheyCanobtainextraconcessionsfromtheforeignerbecauseofhisorherhastetofinishandreturnhomeonschedule.ThreeAmericans,noneofwhomhadeverbeentoJapan,wenttoselltractorstoJapanesebuyers.Theythoughtthediscussionshadgonewellandpreparedtowrapupthedeal.However,therewagandSOnoreactionfromtheJapanese.Thesilencebecamedisquieting,notheAmericansloweredtheprice.Becausetherewasstillonreaction,theyagainloweredtheprice.ThiswentuntiltheirpriceWasfarlowerthantheyhadplanned.Whathadbecomesilentnottoindicatetheydidn’tknowWasthattheJ印aneseover,arejectionofthepropositionbutmerelytothinkitcustomaryJapanesenegotiatingpractice.(2)AttitudestowardAchievementandWorka“Germansputleisurefirstandworksecond,’’saysintheGerman-bornwomannowlivingAmerica,it’stheotherwayaround.”LiketheGermans,theMexicanssaythat“Americanslivelive.’’Thisisanexampleofthework,butweworkUnitedStates,‘‘Intoto懿红锄eeontraslstoamongculturalattitadestowardworkwhereworkisconsiderednecessarystopobtaintheessentialsforsurvival,oncethesehavebeenobtained,peoplemaytheaccomplishmentofataskworking.Theydonotmakeconla-asttoanendinitself.Thisattitudeaisinsharpathebeliefinmanyindustrialsocietiesthatworkismoral,andevenreligiousvirtue.Anotheraspectoftheattitudetowardworkistheprestigeassociatedwithcertainkindsofemployment.Insomecountries.sometypesofworkareconsideredmoreprestigiousthanothers,butthereisnowherenearthedisdainforphysicallaborthanthereisinmanydevelopedcountries.TheresultisalloverabundanceofattorneysandeconomistsandalackoftoolmakersThelessontoandweldersevenwhenthewagesarehigherforthelatter.belearnedfromthisdiscussionisthatitishighlypossiblethatmanagerswillencountersharpdifferencesintheattitudestowardworkandachievementinotherculturescomparedtotheirownwhensubordinatestheygooverseas.However,theymustrecruitwithaneedtoprogress,whatevertheunderlyingmotive.(3)AttitudestowardChangeTheAmericanfitra,acc毛ls幻∞舱dtotherapidacceptancebyAmericamofsomethingnew,isfrequentlysurprisedtofindthatnewnessdoesnotcarrythatkindofmagicinmarketswheresomething廿iedandprovenispreferredfondofremindingAmericansthattheyareatotheuIlknown.Europeansareyoungnationlackingtraditions.Thenearreverencefortraditionalmethodsnlakesitmoredifficultforaproductionmanagertoinstallanewprocess,amarketertointroduceanewproduct,oraU'easureftochangeanaccountingsystem.Yetundeniably,internationalfirmsareagentsofchange,andtheirpersonnelmustbeabletocounterresistancetoit.Thenewideawillbemorereadilyacceptablethecloseritcallberelatedtothetraditionalonewhileatthesametimebeingmadetoshowitsrelativeadvantage.Inotherwords.themoreconsistentanewideais、椭tllasociety’sattitudesandexperiences,themorequicklyitwillbeadopted.Economicmotivescarlbeastronginfluenceforacceptingchange.Thus,iffactoryworkersCallbeshownthattheirincomewillincreasewithanewmachineorhousewivescaIlbeconvincedthatanewfrozenfoodwillenablethemtoworkandstillprovidesatisfactorymealsfortheirfamilies,theyCanbepersuadedbythegainintheireconomicwelfaretoacceptideasthattheymightotherwiseoppose.Ⅱ1.CaUSeSofCultureConflictsCultureconflicts啪beexaminedfromtwoaspects.Ontheonehand.cultureconflictscomefromtheinteriorofthebusiness.Multinationalcorporationswillhirealotofpeoplefromthehostcountryinordertoachievelocalization.Besides.asaresultoftheexpansionoftheMNCsinaglobalscale,itsemploymentwillconsistofpeoplefromdifferentcultures,whichwillserveasonereasonfortheconflictsafterwards.Ontheotherhand,cultureconflictsarefromtheexterior.Aftertheentryintothehostcountry,thepracticeofthecorporationwillbeinfluencedbythelocalcultureofthehostcounU'y.Thoserelevantfactorsmayincludecustomers,suppliers,rules,regulations,andgovernmentandorganizations,etc.Underthecircumstances,conflictmayshowitselfinvariouswaysbuttheresultwillonlybedisastrous.Andintherealpractice,wehavenoticedthatMNCswillsufferbothinternallyandexternally.Thenthequestion,whatarethecauses,hasattractedalotofacademicattention.Basicallyspeaking,thereasonmaybelistedasfollows:1.LanguageandCommunicationThewayinwhichpeoplecommunicate,includingusingverbalandnon-verbal4llanguage,directlyaffectsthepracticeoftheinternationalbusinesses.Aspartnersmayhavedifferentnativelanguages,theyneedplanningandtouseinterpretersinnegotiation,advertising,bewrittenatleastintwoanmanagement.Everycontractanddocumentshouldlongrun.conflictsarelanguages.Inaisnotainevitableresultsbecauseinterpreterinthiscasemasterkey.Communicationsbymorrisofinterpretingwillresultinmanyproblemsthereareabecauselotofthingsthatareinexplicableunlesssayagoodunderstandingofthelocalcultureisavailable.Thus,wecanlanguagebarrierswillleadtoveryseriouscultureconflictswhichwillundoubtedlymaketheoperationofMNCsmorecostly.2.ReligionsReligionmaybedcfined船asystemofsharedbeliefsandritualsthatareconcernedwiththerealmofthesacred.Therelationshipbetweenreligionandsocietyissubtle,complex,andprofound.Therearethousandsofdifferentreligionsintheworldtoday,butthewidelypracticedreligionsincludeChristianity,Islam,Hinduism,andBuddhism.PerhapsthemostimportantbusinessimplicationofreligioncentersontheextenttowhichdifferentreligionsshapeattitudestoworkandentrepreneurshipandthedegreetowhichthereligiousethicsofasocietyaffectstheCOStsofdoingbusinessinthatcountry.3.RigidityoftheOriginalCorporateCultureOnebigdangerconfrontingacompanythatgoesabroadforthefirsttimeisthealedangerofbeingill-informed.Internationalbusinessesthatill-informedaboutthepracticesofanothercultureareunlikelyadaptationtotosucceed.Doingbusinessindifferentculturesrequiresconformtothevaluesystemsandinternationalnormsofthatculture.AdaptationinaCantheembraceallaspectsofanfirm’Soperationsforeigncountry.Soofthetothechangeofthecorporatecultureisalsohighlyrecommendedbecausechangingcorporateenvironmentandtheadjustmentoftheorganizationalstructure.Clingingcultureoftheparentcorporationwillneverbeawisechoice.ChapterFourCross-culturalinChinaManagementtwointheⅢCsCrossingculturesmayhappenwhenpeoplefrom42ormoreculturesbegintointeractwithoneanother.Whenithappensinabusinessorcorporation,itmayrefertotheinteractionbetweendifferentculturalgroupswithmtheorganization.Inthatcase,clashesandconflictswillprobablyarise,whichgivedsetoanewdimensionofmanagement,i.e.,tocross-culturalmanagement.Intheeraoftheglobalcooperation,culturaldiversityhasberecognized,understood,andappropriatelycountermeasuresshouldbeworkedeross-culturalmanagement.usedinorganizations.ItissuggestedthatproperouttoresolvetheproblemsoccurredintheprocessofHowever,cross-culturalmanagementisnotanewinvention.ItsorigincouldbetrackedbacktotheancienttimeswhenancientEgyptiansandancientGreeksThroughdoingbusinesswithforeignbegantotrade.lands,theybegantoknowhowtoll'adewithpeoplefromdifferentcultures.DuringtheRenaissanceperiod,BritishandDane,together、】l,itllsomeEuropeanshadalreadyestablishedbusinessgroupsthroughouttheworld.Theycouldnlakeeverythinggosmoothlybycultivatingtheawarenessandsensitivitytothelanguages,beliefs,andcustomsindifferentculturalsettings.Infact,whattheydidCanbedefinedasontheearlypracticeofcross-culturaloperations.Nonetheless,theirpracticeWasbasedtheirpersonalexperiencesinbusinessbecausestudyofnoattentionhadeverbeengiventothemanagementfromaculturalperspectivewhenculturestudyitselfWasonlyforlate1970sWasonanthropologists’interests.Notuntiltheconsideredascross‘culturalitinitiatedmanagementtherealsubjectintheacademicfield.ThestudytoworkandevolvedinUnitedStateswiththeaimoutaneffectivewaytomanageacrossculturesandtomaximizethesynergyoftheoperations.I.MainFeaturesofMNCs’PracticeinC:hinafromthePerspectiveofCross-culturalWhencrossingnationalManagementareboundaries,businessesunderpressuretodevelopcross-culturalmanagementabilitiestoandskills.WesternventuresandChinesebusinessmenmeetingconducttransactionsorfoundingjointarekeenlyawarethatculturalfactorsshock”isnoheavilyinfluencetheirmanagementstylestrendyacademictopic,butaandpractices.”CultureonalongerahardrealitywhoseeffectbusinessbeginslikealmostunnoticeabledropsofwateronlytoturnintohammerblowslaterHowever,theforeignbusinessinvestorshaveimmediatelysoonason.realizedthattheinternationaltheysetenviromeatisquiteuniqueinChinaasthefootontheland.ItisabsolutelycertamthatwhentheyenterintotheChinesemarket,theywillbringabouttheirculturesandmanagementpatternstogetherwiththeircapital.Asboundtointeractreasonsaresult,theculturesarewitheachother.NumerousexamplesshowthatoneofthemostimportantcontributingtotheMNCs’failuresistheculturalclashesandconflictsbecausepeoplefromdifferentcultures,asisknowntoall,havediversevalueorientations,andobservediversebeliefsandcodesofbehaviors.ThewayofmanagementoftheMNCsinChinaisdifferentfromeitherthepracticeintheirhomecountriesorthepracticeoflocalfollows:companieshereinChina,whichbearsitsowncharacteristicslistedas1.DissimilationoftheInthelvlNCstheSubjectandtheObjectinManagementintheprocessofsubjectthemanagementwillbetheforeigninvestors,andmanagers,whileobjectmayrefertothepeoplewhoarebeingmanaged,orcalledbethemaincomponentsapartfromahumanresources,inwhichChineseemployeeswillhandfulofadministratorsfromtheforeignclearlydisplayedsincetheside.Inthiscase,thedissimilationhasbeensubjectsareallfromtheforeigncounlriesasopposedtotheobjectsthatcomefromChina.2.NationalityoftheThevaluesSubject’SCultureofaculturedonotemergefromnowherefullyformed.Theyareaandnormstheevolutionaryproductofnumberoffactorsatworkinasociety.Theseafactorsincludetheprevailingpoliticalandeconomicphilosophy,thesocialstructureofsociety,andthedominantreligion,language,andeducation.Cultureofacountryisvirtuallythecultureofthenation.People’Semotionandperception,COdeSofsociety,andpatternofbehaviorsareallgovernedanddeeplyinfluencedbythecultureandtmditionofthenation.Intheearlystageofthecross-culturalmanagement,businessestendtobeethnocentric,whichmeanswithintheoperationthecultureofthesubjectwillenjoydominance.ForexampleintheAmerican-Japanesecorporations,differencesandconflictsbetweeneasternandwesterncul_tI】I-eshavebeenclearlyembodied.IntheAmericanculture,individualism,individualachievementandvalueshavebeenattachedtosuchagreatemphasisthatnon-Americanwillhavenowaytounderstand,nottomentiontopracticeinreallife.TheirJapanesecounterparts,however,observesomethingjusttheopposite.Forthem,thekeycomponentoftheorganizationisthe‘'workergroup.’’Thisworkergroupcanexpectlifelongemploymentandadvancementaccordingtoseniority.Managers----sectionchiefsordepartmentheads.一一value“groupism.harmony,acceptanceofhierarchyinworkrelationships,s豇lseofobligationanddebtoflowerlevelpersonneltosuperiors,andconsensualdecisionmaking.”(Peterson,1993)“WhileAmericanmanagersemphasizesupervisorystyle,decisionmaking,andcontrolmechanism,theJapanesearemoreconcemad谢也communicationprocess,interdepartmentalrelations,andpaternalisticapproach.”限.Cluplan&0.Kucukemiroghi,1993)Therefore,whenitcomestoestablishMNCsinChina,thecultureoftheforeigninvestorswillinevitablyshowitselfinit.3.DiversityinManagerialPatternsDiversityinmanagerialpatternswillbecomeoneofthemoststrikingfeaturesoftheMNCsinChina.Thereareseveralreasonswhichmayaccountforthat.Firstofall,theinvestorsinChinacomefromanumberofcountries,mainlyfromthewesternworld,includingtheUnitesStates,Canada,Australia,GreatBritain,France,Germany,Denmark,Holland,Italy,Spain,andSOon.Secondly,diversityoftheinvestors’homeculturesbringabouttheproblemofmulti-nationality.Justaswhathasbeenstatedbefore,theinvestors’homecultureswillgosidebysidewiththeirmoney,sothattheirculturewillstillbedominantcultureintheirpracticeofcross-culturalmanagement.Inotherwords,theirwayofmanagingwillsurelydisplaythefeaturesoftheirowncultures.4.AdvancedWayofManagementThemajorityoftheinvestorscomefromtheindustrializedorsemi-industrializedcountries.Intheirhomecountries,theyhavemoreopenedmarkets,hiega|ydevelopedeconomy,andmodemmanagementmethods.TheircomingtoChinawillnotonlybringUSthelatestscientificknowledge,newmaterials,advancedtechnologybutalsointroduceto45BSthelatestknowledgeandskillsofmodemmanagement.TheintroductiontoadvancedtheoriesandpraeficMskillsonmodemmanagement,inparticular,willupgradethemanagerialleveloftheMNCsinChina.Inaddition,edenpeoplefromdifferentpartsofChinahavetheiruniquetraditionsandcustomsbecausewehaveSOmanyethnicgroups.Therefore,tosomeextentourlocalenterpriseswithinChinacallalsobenefitfromtheforeigninvestors’entryintoChinesemarket船thecompetitionisgettingmoreandmoreintensifiedglobally.5.ConstantDevelopmentoftheManagerialLevelintheMNCsNothingcanbeperfectattheSlart.Thingswillbecomebetterandbeaersinceourknowledgeaboutthemisgettingdeeperanddeeper.AsfarastheMNCsareconcemed.theyalenew0CctⅡrcl').ceinChinawhichhasalargespaceforimprovement.DuetotheinteractionbetweenforeignandChinesecultures,itCanbepredictedthatthemanagementintheMNCswillundergoaseriesofdramaticchanges.WiththedevelopmentofMNCsinChina,CROSS.culturalmanagementwillbeperfectedconstantlySOastoachievehigherefficiencyandgreatereffectivenessinrunningtheoperation.II.CurrentSituationofCross-culturalManagementinMNCsinChinaManagingacrosscultureswillbeamorecomplicatedandchallengingtaskincomparisontomanagingwithinoneculture,becausealotmoreelementsandingredientsshouldbetakenintoconsiderationbeforedrawinganyconclusion.Atpresent,thecharacteristicsofthecross・culturalmanagementinChinaCanbesummarizedasfollows:1.AcculturationofChineseandW.estemCulturesBymeansoffrequentandconsciousaccesstothewesterncultures,ChineseemployeesCangraduallybecognitiveofforeignculturesandacceptitasthewaytheyexist,andthengotroughtheassimilationprocessofthetwoormorecultures.2.RealizationoftheManagementLocalizationintheOperationAftertheestablishingoftheMNCsinChina,theparentcompanyisverylikelytosendmanyadministratorstotheChinesemarket,especiallytheovcrseasChinesewhoarenotonlyproficientinbothlanguagesbutalsohaveabetterunderstandingoftheChineseculturewiththepurposetoeasethetensioncausedbythedifferencebetweencultures.Lateron,theymayturntolocalpeopletotakeupthemanagementofthecompanybywhichtheycanfBl'therenhancetheteamspiritandeliminatethenegativeeffectscausedbyculturaldifferences.Inthisway,theMNCshaverealizedthelocalizationofmanagementandfartherboostedtheefficiencyoftheirmanagement.3.CombinationofManagerialPatternsoftheTwoCulturesWhiletheMNCsareundergoingtheprocessofacculturation,theyhaveassimilatedthefinestpartsofbothChineseandwesternmanagerialpatterns.Here,let’Stakethetypicalwestemcountriesforexample.Asforthewesterncultures,theyvaluedisciplinesandlawsverymuch,andtheybelievebusinessisbusinessinwhichthereshouldbenosuchpersonaloremotionalfactorsinvolved.Thus,tlleydobusinessstrictlyundertheframeworkofthelawsandwilldefenditunderanycircumstances.Onthecountry,weChineseplacegreatsll'essonrelationships.Thenasaresult,theMNCs’managersjustcombinethesetwoelementstogetherbytakingthembothintoconsiderationandmakeitworkablehereintheChinesesetting.Ontheonehand,newrolesandpolicieshavebeenfoundconcerningthemanagingpractice.Firstly,theyhaveimprovedthewelfaresystemtomaintainthestabilityoftheworkforce.WecouldstillrecallthatyearsagoupontheirentryintotheChinesemarket;t11eydidn’tsetupanyinsuranceorwelfaresystemtoensuretherightstheemployeesdeserved.Soatthatmoment,workinginamultinationalcorporationWaslongconsideredbeingtakenadvantageoftheyouthandenergy.Consequently,jobstherewerenot戬x黼andensured.Lateron.thecorporationbegantonoticetheimportantrolesthatsalary,vacationsandwelfareplayintermsofremainingthesteadinessoftheworkforce.WehavewitnessedthebigstridestheMNCshavetakenbysettingupmorefavorablewelfaresystemsandprovidingmoretemptingsalariessincethen.Secondly,theyalsooffermorepaidvacationsbesidesthenationalholidays.Everyyeartheymayaffordacertaindaysofpaidvacationfortheiremployeesinordertoshowtheirconsideration.Ontheotherhand,theyhavealsoestablishedthetenuresystem.ManybigMNCshavecarriedoutthe47缸籼epracticeinsteadofrenewingresponsibilitytothethecontractseverythreeyears.Theirpracticeshaveofworkedverywell.BydoingSO,theyhavegreatlyenhancedtheemployees’sensecompanyandtheirwork.aMotorola'spracticeinChinaisoverseasperfectdemonstrationofthischaracteristic.AfterhasachievedremarkableaSUCCESSestablishingthefirstfa咖inTianjin,MotorolainChina.Meanwhile,themanagersalsonoticedthatlotofemployeesWgrepartymembers.AndinsomelocalChinesecorporations,theyhavesetupaspecialorganizationforallthepartymembersandhaveappointedsomeonesecretary(aspecialtitleonlyexistinginChineseculture).Moreover,alltheonpartymembersworkveryhardintheirarepositions,becamebasedtheChinesecultureandpoliticalsystem,partymemberstosupposedtobetheexamplestheotheremployeesandofsbonldtrytheirbesttomakemorecanleconnibutiontocompany.Therefore.managersMotorolaupwimanideatoestablishthesameorganizationintheirownfactory.Ofcoursethatmadethembecomethefirstforeigninvestortodosomethinglikethat.Insteadofresistingtheconceptofbeingapartymember,themanagersInthisway,partypeffecflYcombinedtheonewesternconceptasandChinesetoculture.membersCan,onthehand,servegoodexamplestheotherevenemployees;ontheotherhand.theythemselvesarealsomotivatedandmayworkharderthanbefore.AsaresulttheeffectivenessandeRiciencyofthebusinesshavebeenadramaticallyimproved.FinallyInconclusion,thetwo-winresulthasbeenachieved.mnllinationalcorporationsinChinahavealreadyrealizedthetotakesignificanceofculturaldifferenceintheirmanagementandbegunelementsintoconsiderationtomaketheculturecultures.adjustmentstotheirwayofmanagingacrossIII.MNCs’ProblemsinCross-culturalManagementIninChinaanincreasinglyglobalenvironment,moreandmorecompaniesareseekingprofitsintheforeignmarketsindifferentways,includingestablishingsubsidiaries,affiliates,branchoffices,andSOon.Sincedifferentformshavebeenadoptedtoestablishoperationsacrosstheborders.themanagerialactivitiestendscatteringallovertobeverycomplicated谢tllorganizationstotheworld.Soitiseasytoimaginehowintricateitwillbeachievetheintegrityofmanagerialpatternsandsynergyofthe48organizationinaglobalsensesincethereissuchavarietyofculturesinvolvedinit.ThatisthedilemmaconfrontingallthemanagersandadministratorsintheMNCs,whichalsoaccountsforthebiggestbarrierintheway.RecentresearcheshaveindicatedthattherateofsuccessoftheMNCsinChinaonlyamountsto45%orso.OneimportantreasonforthatisthereissuchalargegapbetweenthewesternersandthelocalChineseinalmosteveryaspectofmanagementincludingthebasicmanagerialideas,concepts,patternsandSOon.Theyfailedtocoordinatethebehaviorsoftheemployeesanddidn’tfigureouteffectivesolutionstotheproblemsarisingintheprocessofcross-culturalmanagement.Mainlytheproblemsmayfallintotwocategories:1.ProblemsTriggeredbytheDifferenceinValuesValuesarethestandardsbywhichacultureevaluatesactionsandtheirconsequences.Theyaffectperceptionsandcallhaveastrongemotionalimpactuponpeople.Indifferentculturesvaluesmayvarysignificantly.OurChinesetraditionalcultureischaracterizedbytheconstantpursuitofstabilityandtheresistancetochanges,whichhavebeenclearlyreflectedbytheChinesemanagerswhoareverysensitivetorisksandfeelveryreluctanttoventureanything.Soasdecisionmakerstheyaretooconservative.Inthiscase,theywilllosemanygoldenopportunitiestogetthebusinessdevelopedinsuchacompetitivemarket.Asforthemanagersfromthewesternworld.thatwillbeadifferentstory.Westernmanagers,cultivatedbytheircultures,tendtobequiteopentochallengesandadventures.Theya糟alwaysfullofinnovationsandreadytowelcomerisks.Theycan,inmostcases,taketheinitiativeinintroducingandadoptingnewtechnologyandtappingonthenewmarkets.Therefore,whenthedecision-makingprocessmayinvolvesomeriskstotake,disputeswilldefinitelyappearonthescreen.Ontheattitudetowardswork,thetwosidesstillhavedisputes,Thewesternershighlyvaluehardworkandachievement,andbelievethatworkistheonlywaytorealizetheirpersonalvalues;whileourChinesecounterpartsreallyenjoyaharmoniouslifeandtheybelieveinthedoctrineofthemean.Sotheyquiteappreciateaslowpaceinworkandneverhaste.Besides,Chineseculturestresscollectivismandallthedecisionsshouldbemadebygroupandgroupmembersvalueand49acceptthehierarchyinworkrelationships,SOindividualsrarelyputforwardtheirownopinionsinpublicandtheyarenotusedtochallengingtheauthority’Sdecisions.Onthecontrary,thewesternersemphasizetheindividualismandareencouragedtOexpresstheirevenpersonalideasduringthedecision—makingprocessthoughtheirideasmayoffendtheirleaders.2.ProblemsBroughtaboutbyDifferenceinSystemsInWesternworld,companieswilldobusinessbasedonlawsandregulations.Andtheywilltryeverymeanstomaximizetheirprofit,inwhichemotionalfactorswillnotbecountedata11.ButinChina,becauseoftheculturalandhistoricalreasons.wedonotstresslawsthatthiswaymuchinsteadwevaluehumanrelationshipswhichshouldverymuch.Butdoingbusinessinamayblockthepursuitofprofitsbeutmostgoalinbusinesssense.Anywaythisordifferencewillbemucheasiertoidentifyintermsofpersonnelitmanagementhumanresourcesmanagement.Forinstance,whencomestoappointadirectororamanagerofthedepartment,Chinesewillevaluatethecandidateinall-roundperspectiveswhichmaycontainnotonlySOhispersonalqualityandskillsbutalsointerpersonalrelationshipsandon;whilewesternerswillgivepriodtytohismanagerialproficiencyandthatmaybecometheonlythingtoconsiderChapterFiveConclusionandSomeSuggestionsI.OurAttitudetowardstheExistenceofCulturalDi侬rencesinMNCs’PracticeCulture,aswehavepresentedtheconcept,isacompletepaRemofliving.Itisofcultureareactedouteachelaborate,multidimensional,andall-pervasive.Aspensmembersofdifferentculturescometogetheroftenattosharetimeideasandinformation.Cultureistherootofcommunicationchallenges.AlthoughOCCUronmanycross-culturalcommunicationproblemscanthetointerpersonalculturallevel,mostdifficultiesandmisunderstandingsexperiencesbeattributeddifferences.ExploringhigoticMandthewaysinwhichvariousculturalgroupshaverelatedtoeachotheristhekeytoopeningchannelsforCroSS-cultural50communication.Becomingmoreawareofculturaldifferences,弱wellasexploringculturalsimilarities,canhelpyoucommunicatewitllothersmoreeffectively.Nexttimeyoufmdyourselfinaconfusingsituation,askyourselfhowculturemaybeshapingyourownreactions.andtrytOseetheworldfromtheother'spointofview.Culturaldifferences,aswehavediscussedbefore,doexistinthepracticeofMNCsinChina,whichhavebecomethemostimportantandintricatevariableforthemtohandle.IfthereisalackofbasicideasofChinesecultureandethicsbeforeenteringintotheChinesemarket,theMNCswillbeverylikelytoencounterseverfailuresjustbecauseoftheignoranceoftheexistenceofculturaldifferences.1I.SpecificStrategiesonCross-culturalManagementinChinaTherealeseveralbasicstrategiesofferedherethatCanbeemployedincross-culturalmanagementinChinawiththehopetohelptheMNCsinChinaeliminatethenegativeeffectscausedbythedifferencebetweenculturesandachievetheeffectivenessinmanagement.1.LocalizationStrategyIntermsofcross-culturalmanagement,thereisabasicprinciple‘'thinkglobally,andactlocally’’thathasmadethekeypointMNCsshouldabideby.Asuccessfulinternationalbusinesspersonmustrememberthat‘'theforeigner'’mustbereadyandwillingtobehaveinaccordancewithrulesofthelocalculture.InChina’Scase,whentheMNCswakeinvestmenthere,theywillusuallyestablishsubsidiariesthatenjoythefreedomofoperation.Inotherwords,parentcorporationswillnotinterfereinthebusinessandmanagementactivitiesexceptthattheywillmakeplansforprofitsandtotalsales.Asforthepersonnelarrangement,paremcorporationswillonlyappointseveralpeoplefromhomecountrytothehigherposition,andthesubsidiariesoraffiliatesherewillbeentitledwiththerighttoseeknewrecruitslocally.Therearetwomainreasonsforthat.Ontheonehand,theChinesegovernmentwantstoincreasetherateofemploymentbycreatingmorejobopportunidesSOthatChinacRnimmergeintotheintemadonalmarketmorequickly;ontheotherhand,theemploymentoflocalpeoplewillundoubtedlyhelpfnrtherdevelopthelocal51marketbecausetheyknowverywellthelocalculture,includingthetraditionsandcustoms,localmarketsituationandvariousrulesandregulatiowsissuedbythegovernment.Alltheinformationthatthelocalemployeesacquaintwithwillhelpenhancetheeffectivenessandefi%iencyoftheoperation.Aswehaveknown,themanagerialpositionsinmanyMNCsinChinaaremainlytakenbythelocalChinesebecauserecruitinglocally.ThishaslocalizationcanandtrainingareMNCsinconductingbecomeabasicrulewidelycostpracticedinChina.Actually,theparemeffectivelyreducetheof∞溅gexpatriatesfromcorporations,enhancetheadaptationdegreeofthetwocultures,andensuetheeconomicsafetyofthehostcountrywaytoresolvetheconflictsaswell.Therefore.10calizationhasbecomethemosteffectiveculturedifferences.causedby2.CultureTransplantThekeyofthisslxategylieinthatpersonnelfromthehomecountrywillassumetheimportantmanagingpositionsinthesubsidiarieswillbenooraffiliatesinChina.BydoingSO,therebarriersintheprocessofinformationcommunicationsincethemanagersofthethesameparentanddaughtercompaniesshareculture.Therefore,themanagerssentherewillcarryortransplanttheorculturetheusualpracticeofbusinessesintheparentcompaniestotothesubsidiariesaffiliatesinChinawiththepurposemakethelocalemployeesadapttotheforeignculturequickly,thenmakethemacceptitinthisspecificculturalsetting.Anyway,thisandcompletetheiritsownroutinesmanagerialpatternhasMNCsthatalimitations.ItCanbeexclusivelyemployedinthelarge—scaledtoutilizetheundifferentiatedmarketingstrategysubsidiariesorpromoteasingleproductinglobalsense.Inotherwords,alltheaffiliatesallovertheworldwillpracticethestandardizedmanagementpoliciesAsisandstrategiesverystrictlytowithomconsideringthedifferencesexistingincultures-toknownall,theITgiantMicrosoftshotservefamebyinventingwindowsseries.ThecandrawapromotionofWindows2000mayconclusionthatcultureasaperfectexample.BynowwetransplantCanonlybeappliedtothoseprofitableandinfluentialMNCswhoarereallypowerful.Theircorporateculturesandpracticeshavebeenwidelyacknowledgedandacceptedbytheotherculturesbecausetheirprosperityandeconomicinfluencehaveprovedeverything.523.CultureCompatibilityTherearelevelsinvolvedinitaccordingtothedegreeofcompatibilitybetweenthetwocultures.1)ParalleledPatternItmeansneitherthecultureofthehomecountriesnorthecultureofChinaiSconsideredthecorporatecultureforthesubsidiariesoraffiliateshereinChina.Althoughthereexistsabiggapbetweenthetwocultures,theyactascomplementstoeachotherinsteadofrejeetingmutually.Inthiscase,twoculturescoexistintheMNCsSOthattheycanmakethedifferenceincultureacompetitiveedgenotabarriertothedevelopment.KFC,electedmostprosperousMNCsinChinaintheyear2000,hasappliedthiss仃ategytotheiropermionverysuccessfully.OntheirarrivalintheChinesemarket,theynoticethatChinesepeoplearenotthatcrazyabouthamburgemastheAmericansdo.Thus,theyworkoutanewconceptspecialfortheChinesemarket,i.e.,offeringanalternativetothosepeoplenotkeenonhamburgers,‘‘Mexicanchickenroll”.Rightafterthattheyprovideanotherchoice‘'BeOingchickenroll"whichmayremindtheChinesecustomersoftheflavorofBeijingRoastDuck,atypicalChinesefood,byaddingveryChineseseasoningsinit.FromthiscaseweCallseethatKFChasfullyrealizedthegreatdifferencebetweenAmericanandChinesefoodculture,andmostimportantly,insteadoftheeliminationofanysingleoneintheirpractice,theyjustmakethetwoworksidebysidetocomplementeachother.Sounderthecircumstances,culturaldifferencesareworkinginfavorofthebusiness,whichhelpthemachieveabigsmashintheChinesemarket.2、LessEmphasisOiltheStrikingDifferencesAlthoughthedifferencesbetweenthetwoculturesareverydistinctwhichmayleadtoconflictsveryeasily,themanagerscanplacelessemphasisonthemostdiversepartsonpurpose,andlxeatthosestuffinavagueway.BydoingSO,theyjustretainthemildpartsofthetwoculturesintheirbusinessoperationandtryeverymeansnottotouchthemostsensitivepartsthatmayarousegreatdivergence.SothatemployeesfromthetwodifferentculturescanhaveachancetostayatpeacewitheachotherandCanmakecompromisesveryeasilyinc勰eofdisagreements.4.CultureAvoidanceWithallthehigh-rankingmanagementpositionsholdingbypeoplesentfromthehomecountries,theirculturesaccordinglywilloccupyadominantpositionintheMNCs,butstilltheydarenotneglecttheChineseculture.Forthoseappointedmanagers,theyarefaillyconsciousofthegreatpowercarriedbyculturaldifferences.Inthiscase,theydealwiththeculturaldifferencesbyavoidingtorelatetothetouchiestpartsofthetwoculturesbecausetheyknowthosesensitivepartsmayprobablytriggergreatproblems.5.ManagementviaaThirdCultureInthelightofthevastgapbetweenhomecultureandtheChineseculture,managersintheMNCswillbewillingtotakeupatllirdculturewhichisquitesimilartothehomecultureintheirmanagerialprocess.Theyarequiteclearthatitmaytakeaverylongtimeforthenewly—foundedorganizationtoadapttothenewenvironmenthere,SOtheywilladoptatllirdculture,whichCanberelativelyneutralinthiscase,tohelpsmoothoveralltheproblemsinvolvedincross-culturalmanagement.ThisstrategyCaneffectivelyavoidthedirectconflictsbetweenthehomecultureandChinesecultureinthefirstplace.WemaystillrememberthatKFChadeversetuptheirregionalheadquartersinHungKongjustbecausecultureinHongKongisquiteinternationalizedwhichbearsalotofsimilaritiestotheAmericanculture.BytakingadvantageofthecultureofHongKong,theyhadrealizedthecentralizationofmanagementuponallthesubsidiariesinChina.Thiswayofmanagingcaillowerthecostoftimeandcapitalandmakeeverythinggosmoothlyandefficiently,whichwillespeciallydofavortothosemanagerswhoarenotveryfamiliarwiththeChineseculture.III.TheEffectivenessofHumanResourcesManagementintheMNCs‘‘Thehamanendeavortobringnationclosertogetherhasinevitableledtotheglobalizationofbusinessforreasonsnotentirelyaltruistic.”Companies.who、啊shtogrow,cannotdependentirelyondomesticbusinessandhencerequirecontrollinglargermarket.54Comlg:titivep坞ssures,changingvaluesintheworkibrceandsociety,governmentlegislation,slowergrowthordeclineinmatureindustriesandrapidgrowthinhi【ghtechnologyfjIITnS,makeshumanresourcesanincreasinglycompetitivefactor.Theinterrelationbetweenpersonnel/humanresourcesmanagememandnationalindustrialrelationsmeansthatcompanymanagementisnotautonomousindeterminingpersonnelpolicy.HumanResourcesManagement,organizingandstrategyaresubjecttodifferentsocialrules,normsandvalues.Tradeunions,governmentauthoritiesandlegalstructuresinfluencepersonnelmanagement.Itishi曲timewetooktheeffectivenessofhumanresourcesmanagementintoconsideration,becauseitwilldeterminewhoremainsontheroadandwhoisleftbehindintheprocessofglobalization.Multinationalcorporationshavebeenincreasinglyawareofthegrowingnecessitytohavenotonlyinternationalbusinessstrategiesbutalsointernationalhumanresourcesstrategies.Justasinternationalbusinessstrategyislikelytohaveuniquefeaturesandneedstobeunderstoodwell,internationalmanagementofhumanresourceshasitsownpeculiaritiessothatitshouldbeperfectlycarriedouttoensuretheSUCCESSoftheoverseasoperations.Effectivehumanresourcemanagementisthekeytothecompetitiveadvantageofcompaniesoperatinginanincreasinglyinternationalenvironment.Toachievethiscompetitiveadvantage,companiesrequirehumanresourcesmanagerswhoarefullyconversantwithinternationalbusinessculturesandpractices.1.TheNecessityandSignificanceinPursuingtheEffectivenessofHumanResourceManagementintheMNCsIntheageofglobalization.strategicmanagementofhumanresourcesisbecomingcriticalfororganizationalsurvival.Globalbusinessenvironmentsdemandflexibilityandrapidresponse.Thereisagrowingrealizationthatthehumandimensionprovidesthekeytoflexibilityandadaptabilityinorganizations.Organizationsareevolvingmoreandmoreinto’humancapital’or’intellectualcapital’organizationsforcompetitiveadvantage.Asaresult,thecultureofanorganizationbecomesanincreasinglyimportantfactorinaffectingorganizationperformance.Thisin55turnexpandstherolesandpriorityofhumanl屯SOnl-cesmanagementtodevelopappropriatehumanresow'cesstrategies,policiesandprogramsforalignmemofstrategyandtobuildahi曲performanceorganizationculture.Thechallengeisalsomademorecomplicatedbysignificantcross—culturaldifferencesbetweenorganizationsandgeographicregions.Interculturalmanagementtakesculturalcontextintoconsideration.Whetherthestickandcarrotworksbestdependsonthebackgroundoftheemployees.Mostimportantly,aneffectivemanagerisabletocommunicatewithpeoplefromvariousbackgrounds,notsimplyco-workersfromhishometownorhomestate.2.TheAwarenessofCulturalDifferencefortheHRManagersIntheinternationalbusinessorganizations,orientationtotheorganizationalcultureisvitalespeciallyforallnewcomers.And,managersneedtounderstandthedynamicsofcross-culturaladaptation.Apersonwhoisculturallydifferentmaygothroughsomeformof’cultureshock’andmanagerswhoknowlittleofthephenomenonarcnotonlyunhelpfultothisemployee,tlleyCanreactimproperlytotheemployee’Sbehaviorandmakethesituationworse.Aneasysolutionisto晰nginexpertsonparticularcultureswhoCanrunculture-specifictrainingseminars.However,manyoftheseSO・calledexpertsonlyperpetuatestereotypes,generalizationsaboutculturesthatareinflexible,inaccurateandleavenoroomforexceptions.Theymayprovideinformation,butnorealunderstanding.Informationknowswhatpeopledo;understandingknowswhytlleydoit.Interculturalmanagementrequirestheabilitytogetinsidetheheadsofpeoplefromotherculturesandknowhowtheyviewtheworld,theirbasicvaluesandbeliefs,andhowtheyreasonandsolveproblems.Everyoneisindividuallyandculturallyunique.Thatis,weallhaveOuridiosyncraticbeliefs,viewpointsandbehaviors.And,weallbelongtonumeroussecondaryculturesbeyondtheprimaryculturewewereborninto.Notwoindividualsbelongtoexactlythesameculturesatthesametimeinabroadsense.Itissaidthat‘‘everytreeintheforestisdifferent,butwecanstilltalkaboutcategoriesoftrees;pinetrees,oaktrees,andmaplefleesandstillacknowledgetheindividualityofeachtree'’.Wecannotbeexpertsoneveryculture.However,we啪developtheflexibilitytoputourselvesinthepsychologicalandculturalshoesofthosewhoaredifferent.WeCanbegintoappreciatethe56realitythatthereaalenumerouswaysofsolvingaproblemandthatourwayisinlargepartresultofgrowingupinOurownculture.Interculturalawarenessourandunderstandingbeginwithknowingwellofownculture.Oftenthiscanonlycomethroughinteractionwiththosewhoaredifferent.57REFERENCES1.陈苏东,陈建平,2002,《国际经济导论》,高等教育出版社。2.陈晓萍,2005,《跨文化管理》,清华大学出版社。3.范晓屏,2002,《国际经营与管理》,科学出版社。4.符正平,2004,《公司国际化经营》,中国人民大学出版社。5.胡文仲,1999,《跨文化交际面面观》,外语教育与研究出版社出版。6.胡文仲,1999,《跨文化交际学概论》,外语教学与研究出版社。7.李善民,吴柏林,2004,《公司文化管理》,中国人民大学出版社。8.马春光,2002,《国际企业经营与管理》,中国对外经济贸易出版。9.梅清豪,2001,《市场管理》,上海人民出版社。10.王学成,齐欣,2004,《国际商务英语》,中国金融出版社。1I.王学成,2004,《商务英语综合业务》,中国商务出版社。12.Bond,M…H1996,TheHandbookofChinesePsychologyHongKong,OxfordUniversityPress.13.HerskovitsM.J.,1955,CulturalAnthropology,,NewYork:Knopf14.Ho砖tedeG,1980,Culture'sConsequences,BeverlyHills,CA:Sage15.HofstedeG,1991,CukturesandOrgunizations,London:Mcgraw-Hill16.KluckhohnEStrodtbeekF.,1961,VariationsinValueOrientations,Evanston,1L:Row,Pcterson.17.LarryA.Samovar,RichardE.PoneLLisaA.Stefani,2000,CommunicationBetweenCultures,ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress&Brooks/Cole/ThomsonLearningAsia18.LinellDavis,2001,DoingCulture--一Cross-culturalCommunicationinaction,ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchpress19.RichardM.Hodgetts,FredLuthans,2001,InternationalManagemenh…Culture,StrategyandBehaviourFourthEdition,TheMcGraw-HillCompanies20.TdandisH.C,1994,CultureandSocialBehavio砒NewYork:Mcgraw-HillACKNOWLEDGEMENTFirstofall,Iamextremelygratefultomysupervisor,ProfessorQiXin,forherbreadthofknowledge,uniqueinsight,valuabledirectionandsuggestions,forhergenerosityinspendingmuchofherprecioustimeindiscussingquestionsconcernedinmythesis,aswellasforherconstantencouragement.Moreover,heartfeltthanksshouldbegiventomydearfriendswhohaveprovidedgeneroushelpandofferedmeconstructiveadvicewhile1wasworkingonthethesis.Ishouldalsoexpressmyspecialthankstomyfamilywhoaresupportingmeallalong.Allinall,withouttheirheartyandsincerehelp,itwasimpossibleformetofinishthethesis

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