BlackwelI Publishing Asian J Androl 2006,"8{51:595—600 DOI:10.1 111/j.1745—7262.2006.00177.x AJA 、IInⅣw.asiaandro.corn I=) inalArticfe Effects of melatonin on lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzymes in streptozotocin--induced diabetic rat testis Abdullah Armagan ,Efkan Uz ,H_Ramazan Yilmaz ,Sedat Soyupek ,Taylan Oksay ,Nurten Ozcelik Department of Urology,。Department ofMedical Biology,Suleyman Demirel University,Faculyt ofMedicine,Isparta 32050,Turkey Abstract Aira:To examine the effects of melatonin treatment on lipid peroxidation fLPO and the activities of antioxidant enzymes in the testicular tissue of streDtozotocin fSTZ)一induced diabetic rats.Methods:Twenty—six male rats were randomly divided into three groups as follows:group I.control,non.diabetic rats fn=9):group II,STZ induced, untreated diabetic rats fn=8):group III,STZ.induced,melatonin.treated fdose of l 0 mg/kg.day)diabetic rats fn=9). Following 8.week melatonin treatment,all rats were anaesthetized and then were killed to remove testes from the scrotum.Results:As compared to group I.in rat testicular tissues of group lI.increased levels of ma1Ondia1dehvde (MDA)f尸<0.O 1)and superoxide dismutase fSOD)f尸<0.0 1)as well as decreased levels of catalase fCAT)fP<0.0 1) and glutathione peroxidase fGSH.Px)f尸>0.05)were found.In contrast,as compared to group II,in rat testicular tissues of group III.1evels of MDA decreased(but this decrease was not significant,P>0.05)and SOD f尸<0.01)as well as C觚(P<0 05)increased GSH—Px was not influenced by any of the treatment Melatonin did not signii—f cantly affect the elevated glucose concentration of diabetic group.At the end of the study,there was no significant difference between the melatonin—treated group and the untreated group by means of body and testicular weight. Conelusion:Diabetes mellitus increases oxidative stress and melatonin inhibits lipid peroxidation and might regulate the activities of antioxidant enzymes of diabetic rat testes {Asian J Androl 2oo6 Sep;8:595—6oo1 Keywords:melatonin;antioxidant enzymes;lipid peroxidation;oxidative stress;diabetes mellitus;testis 1 IntrOductiOn direct effects of melatonin on the male reproductive sys— tern and testosterone synthesis from Leydig cells have Melatonin fN—acetyl一5一methoxy—tryptamine)is syn— thesized mainly by the pineal gland and is suggested to also been examined in studies on animals『21.Because melatonin binding sites have been detected in the repro. ductive system of different species,it seems reasonable to assume that melatonin exerts its actions through di. rect interaction with the steroidogenic cells of the repro— have antioxidant and prophylactic properties【1].The Correspondence to:Dr Abdullah Armagan,Suleyman Demirel University,Faculty of Medicine,Department of Urology,Isparta ductive organs『21. Diabetic testicular dysfunction might be transient or permanent depending on the degree and duration of the 32050,Turkey. Tel:+90—24—62 l 1—2405.Fax:+90—24—6237一l762 E—marl:aarmagan@reed.sdu.edu.tr disease.Erectile dysfunction fED)is fl wel1.recognized complication of diabetes mellitus fDM).Infertility among Received 2005--07・・22 Accepted 2006・-03・・1 8 @2006,A ian 。u na 。f And 。 。g shanghai n i u e。f Ma e ia Med ca'ch ne e Academy。f science -Al1 igh e e Ve d‘ .595 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
Effect(口melatonin on diabet&。rot te ti s diabetic men is a less well—examined problem and the evaluation of the gonadal state in these cases is not clearly established.The low incidence of diabetes in infertile patients might be the reason for the 1imited amount of current research[3].However,an altered neuroendo— crine and testicular axis was noted in experimental stu— dies[3].Seethalakshmi et a1.f4]found that testicular weight,sperm count and motility are significantly de— creased in diabetic rats.Moreover,Cameron et a1.f5 1 defined increasing tubule wal1 thickness.germ cell deple— tion and Sertoli cel1 vacuolizati0n in diabetic human tes— ticular biopsies and in diabetic rats. Enhanced oxidative stress and changes in antioxi— dant capacity are considered to play an important role in the pathogenesis of chronic DM I 6 71.Although the mechanisms underlying the alterations associated with DM are presently not wel 1 understood.hyperglycemia lead patients to increased oxidative stress because the production of several reducing sugars(through glycoly— sis and the polyol pathway)is enhanced【8].These re— ducing sugars can easily react with lipids and proteins (nonenzymatic glycation reaction),increasing the pro— duction of reactive oxygen species(ROS)f81. Ultimately,the aim of the present study js to study the effect of DM on rat testicul ar tissue and to determine the effects of melatonin on diabetic rat testes.T0 our knowledge,this is the first study that investigated the role of melatonin in STZ—induced diabetic rat testes. 2 Materials and methods 2 i Animal model Twenty—six male Spraque—Dawley rats f ll weeks old)obtained from the Laboratory Animal Production Unit of Selcuk University were used in the present study. They were kept in an environment of controlled tem— perature(24—26。C),humidity(55~60%)and photope— riod(12:l2 h 1ight:dark cycle、for l week before the start of the experiment. A commercial balanced diet (Hasyem,Isparta,Turkey)and tap water were provided ad libitum.A11 animals were treated in compliance with the present institutional guidelines. 2.2 Experimental design Twenty—six male rats were randomly divided into three groups(each animal placed into a separate stain.. 1ess—steel cage)as follows:group 1,control non—diabetic rats(n=9);group II,STZ—induced,untreated diabetic rats 596 (n=8);group III,STZ—induced.melatonin treated dia. betic rats(f/=9)which were injected daily with melatonin. Melatonin(Merek_Schuchardt.Hohenbrunn.Germany) was given at a dose of 10 mg/kg・day i.P.[9]for 3 days following STZ treatment and continued until rats were killed.In conWo1 rats.isotonic saline solution fequal to the volume of melatonin)was given jntraperit0neally.STZ dissolved in sodium citrate buffer(pH 4.5)was adminis— tered i.p.at a single dose of 35 mg/kg.Blood glucose 1eve1 s were measured with a Gluco—meter fRoche Diagnostic,Manheim,Germany)in al1 rats after 3 days 0f STZ treatment.Prior to initiating the experiments.it was determined that animals with blood glucose levels <300 mg/dL would be excluded;however.none was excluded.After 8一week melatonin treatment the rats were anaesthetized with an intramuscular iniection of 50 mg/kg ketamine hydrochloride(Ketalar,Eczacibasi. 1stanbul,Turkey)and then the testes were removed rfom the scrotum.The specimens were harvested and stored at-20。C until biochemical assays were performed. 2.3 Biochemical procedure The frozen tissue samples of testes were weighed and homogenized(Ultra Turrax T25,Staufen.Germany), in 50 mmol/L phosphate buffer(pH 7.4)kept in an ice bath.The homogenate and supernatant were frozen at -20。C in aliquots unti1 used for biochemica1 assays.The protein content of the supernatant was determined using the Lowry method fl 01. 2.4 Determination of,n f() f P/?v P(MDA) Malondialdehyde(MDA)leve1.an indicator of rfee radical generation.which increases at the end of lipid peroxidation,was estimated using the double heating method of Draper and Hadley【ll 1.The principle of the method is the spectrophotometric measurement of the color generated by the reaction of thiobarbituric acid (TBA)with MDA.For this purpose。2.5 mL of l 00 g/L TBA solution was added to 0.5 mL supernatant in each centrifuge tube and the tubes were placed in a boiling water bath for 1 5 rain.After cooling in tap water.the tubes were centrifuged at l000×g for 10 rain and 2 mL of the supernatant was added to l mL of 6.7 g/L TBA solution in a test tube and the tube was placed in a boiling water bath for 1 5 rain.The solution was then cooled in tap water and its absorbance was measured using a spec— trophotometer(Shimadzu UV一1601.Kyoto.Japan1 at 532 nm.The concentration of MDA was calculated by ,,fto:#www.asiaandro.com;aja@sibs.ac.cn 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
Asian J Androt 2006;8《51:595—600 the absorbance coefficient of the MDA——TBA complex 2.8 Statistical analysis (absorbance coefficient E=1.56×10 cm一 tool一 )and is expressed as nanomoles per gram of protein. Data were presented as mean±SD.SPSS 9.0(SPSS, Chicago,IL,USA)was used for statistical analysis.The one.way analysis of variance and post hoc multiple com— parison tests were performed on the data of biochemical variables to examine the differences among groups. 2 5 Determination of superoxide dismutase{SOD)ac— tivity Tbta】(Cu.Zn and Mn)superoxide dismutase(SOD, EC 1.15.1.11 activity was determined according to the 尸<0.05 was considered statisitcally signiifcant. 3 Results The mean body and testicular weights,and blood glucose levels of all three groups are given in Table 1. As compared to the control,rats body weight decreased method of Sun et a1.『l 2].The principle of the method is based,briefly,on the inhibition of nitroblue tetrazo— lium fNBT)reduction by the xanthine/xanthine oxidase system as a superoxide generator.Activity was assessed in the ethanol phase of the supernatant after 1.0 mL etha— nol/chloroform mixture(5/3,v/v)were added to the salTle volume of sample and centrifuged.One unit of SOD was defined as the enzyme amount causing 50%inhibi— tion in the NBT reduction rate.Activity was expressed as units per milligram protein. in diabetic and melatonin.treated diabetic rats(P<0.01). However,there was no significant diierence betfween the melatonin.treated diabetic group and the untreated diabetic group by means of body and testicular weights rP>0.05).The blood glucose concentration of STZ— treated group at the end of 8 weeks was considerably 2.6 Determination ̄?["catalase fCA丁J activity CAT(EC 1.1 1.1.6)activity was measured according to the method of Aebi[13】.The principle of the assay is based on the determination of the rate constant k(dimen— higher than that of the control group(P<0.0 1).Mela— tonin did not significantly affect the elevated glucose con— centration of diabetic group. The level of MDA in the testes was increased in un— treated diabetic group compared with that in the control sion:s~,k)of hydrogen peroxide decomposition.By measuring the absorbance changes per minute,the rate group(P<0.01).However,melatonin treatment reduced MDA level compared to the untreated—diabetic group,but constant of the enzyme was determined.Activities were expressed as k(rate constant)per gram protein. 2 7 Determination ofglutathione peroxidase{GSH—Px) activity this decrease was not signiifcant(Tlable 2). The SOD activity in the untreated diabetic group was signiifcantly higher than that in other groups fP<0.01). However,the SOD activity was signiicantfly decreased in the melatonin—treated diabetic rats compared to that in GSH.Px(EC 1.6.4.2)activity was measured using the method of Paglia and Valentine[1 41.The enzymatic reaction in the tube that contained reduced nicotinamide the untreated diabetic rats(Tlable 2).CAT activity was decreased in the untreated diabetic group compared to adenine dinucleotide phosphate(NADPH),reduced glu— tathione(GSH),sodium azid and glutathione reductase that in both he tcontrol group(P<0.01)and melatonin— treated diabetic group(P<0.05).Furthermore,melato— nin reattment significantly increased CAT level compared was initiated by the addition of hydrogen peroxide(H2O2) and the change in absorbance at 340 nm was monitored by a spectrophotometer.Activity was given in units per gram protein.All samples were assayed in duplicate. to the untreated diabetic group(Tlable 2). The activity of GSH—Px was decreased in untreated and treated diabetic rats compared with that in the con— Table 1.Effect of melatonin on body and testicular weights and blood glucose levels in control,diabetic and diabetic+melatonin groups Teh+86-21-5492-2824;Fax:+86-21-5492-2825;ShanghaL China 597・ 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
EJ? ̄,ct fJ,melato/lill On diabetic’rat testis trol rats,but this reduction was not significant(Table 2) 4 Discussion DM is the most common endocrine disease that leads to metabolic abnormalities involving regulation of carbo— hydrate metabolism.These abnormalities produce pa— thologies including vasculopathies.neuropathies.ophthal— mopathies and nephropathies,among many other medi— index of LPO.The increased MDA level in DM suggests that hyperglycaemia induces peroxidative reactions in lip— ids【231.Furthermore,the results suggest that the antioxidative defense systems might have been increased as a response to the diabetic oxidative stress state.In our study.MDA levels in the testicular tissues from the melatonin—treated diabetic group were,however,reduced compared to the untreated diabetic group,but were not significant.This finding was contradictory to the find— cal derangements【l 51.Oxidative stress plays a role in the development of diabetic complications f l 61.In the diabetic state,lipid peroxidation(LP01 can be induced by protein glycation and glucose auto—oxidation that can ings n the erythrocytes of Vural et a1.【91,which showed a significant retum of MDA levels in the melatonin—treated group as compared to the untreated diabetic group to approximate levels of the control group.Oner—Iyidogan further lead to the formation of free radicals『l71.The main free radicals that occur in this diseased state are ,“f.【2]demonstrated a significant increase in MDA level s with acute administration of ethanol,However. superoxide(O2),hydroxyl(0H)and peroxyl(LOO) radicals.These free radicals all might play a role in DNA damage glycation and protein modification reactions,and these levels were significantly reduced with the succes sive administration of melatonin in the testicular tissue. In another study.the level of MDA was significantly lower in the melatonin treated group compared to the in lipid oxidative modification in diabetes『l 81.The dam— age that these radicals inflict on cells might be quantita— tively determined by measurement of levels of MDA.a controls in exposed extrac0rD0real shock wave lithot— product of LPO[1 9].Certain enzymes pl ay an impor— tant role n antioxidant delense.to maintain viable repro— ductive ability;a protective mechanism against oxidative ripsy(ESWL)in the rabbit kidney【241.Baydas et a1. 【25]compared vitamin E and melatonin effects on brain, liver and kidney MDA levels in streptozotocin-induced rats and found that MDA levels are more eficifently decreased with administration of melatonin compared to vitamin E, suggesting that melatonin seems to be a more potent antioxidant,especially in the brain and kidney.ACCOrding t0 the present study.the level of MDA in testicular tissues stress is of importance【201.These enzymes include SOD,GSH—Px,glutathione reductase(GSH—Rd)and C which convert free radicals or reactive oxygen in— termediates to non—radical products.S0D and GSH—Px are major enzymes that scavenge harmful ROS in male reproductive organs f201. Melatonin is an important component of the antioxi— is not significantly reduced.A possible explanation for this finding might be attributed to the longer duration of the current experiment(8 weeks).Furthermore.the spe。 cialized inherent structure of the testicular tissue used in dant profile of many tissues and cells.Reiter et a1.『2 l l documented that melatonin is an efficient scavenger of the present study might have formed a blood—testicular barrier to melatonin uptake. There is currently no consensus regarding antioxi— dant enzyme levels in various organs during the diabetic 0H,peroxynitrite anion(0N00一).O ,nitric oxide radi— cal(NO)and peroxy radicals.Moreover.it enhances the ability of cells to resist oxidative damage by inhibiting the pro—oxidant nitric oxide synthase f22]. The degree of LPO has been assessed according to MDA formation.which has been routinely used as an diseased state.Whereas some studies measuring activi ties of S0D and CAT n DM show the reductions in the levels of these enzymes f261,other studies report the Table 2.Biochemicalparametersin control,diabetic and diabetic+melatonin gl‘oups.Data are expressed asmean±SD.‘P<001.compared .with the corresponding control group. P<0.05, P<O.0 1.compared with the corresponding diabetic+melatonin group. 598 ,’f巾://www.asiaandro.com;aja@sibs.ac.cn 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
Asian|Androl 2006,"8{5\ 595~600 increases in the activities of both enzymes with the STZ— of diabetic rat testes.Further molecular and histopatho— logic investigations are needed to prove the protective role of melatonin in DM—induced oxidative testicular damage. induced diabetes『27—291.SOD catalyzes the conver— sion of superoxide radical to H202.It protects the cell against the toxic e ect of superoxide radicals.In the present study.the increase in the activity of SOD was significant in the testicular tissue of the untreated dia— betic rats.The increased SOD activity might be another Referenees Reiter RJ.1nteractions of pineal hormone melatonin with oxygen—centered free radicals:a brief review.Braz J Med Bio1 sign of the increased oxidative stress in the testicular tissue.Melatonin might be a scavenger for the free oxy— gen radicals.Thereforc.it might prevent the elevation of the activities of SOD enzymes in diabetic rat testes. 2 Rcs 1993;26:】】41—55. Oner—lyidogan Y.Gurdo1 F.0ner P.The effects of acute melatonin and ethano1 treatment on antioxidant enzyme ac— CAT activity is increased significantly in the reelato— nin—treated diabetic group.Hydrogen peroxide is oftcn metabolized bv CAT and GSH—Px;when CAT activity is decreased,as in the present study,H202 is reduced to a very highly oxidizing OH radicaIin the presence of Fe or other transition metals.The OH radical cannot be t‘lVl‘tl‘es in rat testes.Pharmaco1 Res 200 1:44:89-93. 3 Altay B,Cetinkalp S,Doganavsargil B,Hekimgil M,Semerci B. Streptozotocin—induced diabetic effects on spermatogenesis with proliferative cel1 nuclear antigen immunostaining of adult rat testis.Ferti1 Steri1 2003;80 fSuppl 21:828-3 1. 4 Seethalakshmi L,Menon M,Diamond D.The effect of streptozotocin..induced diabetes on the neuroendocfine--male re.. productive tract axis ofthe adult rat.J Uro1 l987;138:190_4. enzymatically removed from cells but a free radical sca一 venger can detoxify it. 5 Cameron DF,Murray FT,Drylie DD.Interstitia1 compart— ment pathology and spermatogenic disruption in testes from impotent diabetic men.Anat Rec 1 985;2 1 3:53-62. Despite the increased SOD and the decreased CAT acti‘vi ti es in diabetic rat testes.the activity of GSH—Px 6 Baynes JW.Thorpe SR.Role of oxidative stress in diabetic was not significantly changed.There are discrepancies in the activity of GSH—Px in diabetic rats.Both decreases 7 complications:a new perspective on an old paradigm.Diabe— tes l999;48:l 9. Wb1f Se,Jiang ZY Hunt JV.Protein glycation and oxidative stress in diabetes mellitus and ageing.Free Radic Bio1 Med f281 and increases in the activity of GSH Px are reported in diabetes『23 1.GSH—Px catalyzes the reduction of H202 by reduced glutathione.The resulting glutathione disul— fide is reduced bv NADPH.Therefore.the reduction of the GSH—Px fdependent on H202 degradation1 observed in endothelial cells might be a result of high glucose concentration.This abnormality might be associated with 9 8 1991:10:339-52. Palmeira CM,Santos DL,Seica R,Moreno AJ,Santos MS. Enhanced mitochondria1 testicular antioxidant capacity in Goto— Kakizaki diabetic rats:role of coenzyme O.Am J Physiol Cel1 Physiol 2001:281:C1023-8. Vura1 H,Sabuncu Arslan SO,Aksoy N.Melatonin inhibits 1ipid peroxidation and stimulates the antioxidant status of dia- the increased cellular damage following an exogenous betic rats.J Pinea1 Res 2001:31:193-8. 10 Lowry OH.Rosebrough NJ,Farr AL,Randal1 RJ.Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent.J Bio1 Chem exposure to H202【30].Furthermore,superoxide radi— cals could inhibit the activity of GSH—Px f3 l,321.In the current study it has been demonstrated that melatonin treatment increases the activity of GSH—Px in diabetic testicular tissue.but this increase is not significant. In summary,our study demonstrates that the dis— eased diabetic state increases MDA activity,which is mitigated by melatonin administration;however,this de— crease is not significant In addition.the diabetic tes— 1951:193:265 75. Draper HH,Hadley M.Malondialdehyde determination as index of lipid peroxidation.Methods Enzimo1 1 990;1 86: 42I一3I. ey LW,Li Y A simple method for clinical assay 12 Sun Oberlof superoxide dismutase.Clin Chem 1 988;34:497-500. H.Catalase 13 AebiI2I一6. ne WN.Studies on the quantitative and 14 Paglia DE,Valentiqualitative characterizati0n of erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase.J Lab C1in Med 1967;70:158-69. of diabetes mellitus upon male I5 Sexton WJ.Jarow JP.Effectvitro.Methods Enzymol 1984;105: ticular tissue SOD activity is increased and level of CAT is decreased.whereas activitiy of GSH—Px is not altered. As a result.WC believe that STZ—induced DM induces testicular damage and melatonin treatment might affect antioxidant enzyme quantity and/or activity. In the light of our results and those of others,it can be concluded that DM increases oxidative stress and me— reproductive function.Urology 1997;49:508-1 3. f SP Diabetes mellitus and free radicals.Free radicals, 16 W01ftransition metals and oxidative stress in the aetiology of diabe— tes mellitus and complications.Br Med BulI I993;49:642—52. 17 Mullarkey CJ,Edelstein D,Brownlee M.Free radica1 genera— latonin inhibits LOP and regulates antioxidant enzymes tion by early glycation products:a mechanism for accelerated Teh+86-21--5492-2824;Fax:+86-21--5492-2825;ShanghaL China 599 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
Effect of melatonin on diabetic rat testis atherogenesis in diabetes.Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1990;173:932—9. 1 8 Hunt JV,Smith CC.Wo1ff SP Autoxidative glycosylation and possible involvement of peroxides and free radicals in LDL modification by glucose.Diabetes 1990;39:1420-4. 19 Nielsen F Mikkelsen BB,Nielsen JB.Andersen HR.Grandiean P.P1asma ma1ondia1dehvde as biomarker for oxidative stress: reference interva1 and effects of 1ife—style factors.Clin Chem 1997;43:1209—14. 20 Fujii J,Iuchi Y.Matsuki S。Ishii T.Cooperative function of antioxidant and redox systems against oxidative stress in male reproductive tissues.Asian J Andro1 2003:5:23 1—42. 2 1 Reiter RJ,Tan DX,Cabrera J,D’Arpa D.Sainz RM.Mayo JC. a1.The oxidant/antioxidant network:role of melatonin. Biol Signals Recept 1999;8:56—63. 22 Pozo D,Reiter RJ,Calvo JR.Guerrero JM.Inhibition of cerebellar nitric oxide synthase and cyclic GMP production by melatonin via complex formation with calmodulin.J Cel1 Biochem 1997;65:43 42. 23 Hunkar AktnaFCeylanA.KarasuC.Effectsofcodliveroil on tissue antioxidant pathways in norma1 and streptozotocin— diabetic rats.Cel1 Biochem Funct 2002;20:297-302. 24 Sere1 TA.Ozguner F Soyupek S.Prevention of shock wave— induced rena1 oxidative stress by melatonin:an experimenta1 study.Uro1 Res 2004;32:69-7 1. 25 Baydas G,Canatan H,Turkoglu A.Comparative analysis of the protective effects of melatonin and vitamin E on streptozocin—induced diabetes mellitus.J Pineal Res 2002 32:225—30. 26 Ozkaya YG,Agar A,Yargicoglu P.Hacioglu G,Bilmen— Sarikcioglu S.Ozen I.酣a1.The cflfect of exercise on brain antioxidant status of diabetic rats.Diabetes Metab 2002;28: 377-84. 27 Huang WC,Juang SW,Liu IM,Chi TC,Cheng JT.Changes of superoxide dismutase gene expression and activity in the brain of streptozotocin—induced diabetic rats.Neurosci Lett 1999; 275:25-8. 28 Aliciguze1 Y.0zen I.Aslan M.Karayalcin U.Activities of xanthine oxidoreductase and antioxidant enzymes in different tissues of diabetic rats.J Lab Clin Med 2003;142:172—7. 29 Yilmaz HR,Uz E,Yucel N,Altuntas I,Ozcelik N.Protective effect of caffeic acid phenethy1 ester fCAPE)on lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzymes in diabetic rat 1iver.J Biochem Mo1 Toxico1 2004;1 8:234—8. 30 Kashiwagi A,Asahina T,Ikebuchi M,Tanaka Y’Takagi Nishio Y.et a1.Abnorma1 glutathione metabolism and in— creased cytotoxicity caused bv H2O2 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells cultured in high glucose medium.Diabetologia 1994;37:264-9. 3 1 Blum J.Fridovich I.Inactivation of glutathione peroxidase by superoxide radica1.Arch Biochem Biophys 1985;240:500—8. 32 Kaur P.Bansal MP.Influence of selenium induced oxidative stress on spermatogenesis and 1actate dehydrogenase—X in mice testis.Asian J Andro1 2004;6:227—32. http://www.asiaandro.com;aja@sibs.ac.cn
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