Chapter 18 Sport Coaching and______ Management Zhang Cianfrone

CHAPTER 18

CHAPTER: SPORT COACHING AND MANAGEMENT

AUTHORS:

Dr. James Jianhui Zhang University of Florida

Dr. Beth A. Cianfrone Georgia State University

This chapter covers the following sections: (a) recent growth of the sport industry, (b) social value of sport, (c) expansion of career opportunities, and (d) professional preparations for employment. This chapter concludes with key terms and questions for reflection.

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Recent Growth of the Sport Industry

Due to growing interest in leisure activities, adoption of healthy lifestyles, augmentation of sport competitions and events, and evolution of sport media technology, the sport industry has shown rapid growth and become one of the largest industries in North America. The estimated size of the sport business industry has risen sharply in recent years, from $213 billion at the end of the 1990s (Broughton, Lee, & Netheny, 1999) to over $400 billion in 2010 (Plunkett Research, 2010). Sport leagues, teams, and events have been an integral part in forming the cultural and economic basis for many communities and have become one of the most popular leisure and entertainment options. Of the gross domestic sport product, sport business transactions are primarily in the following segments: advertising and endorsements (14.1%), sporting goods (13.2), spectator spending (12.9%), operating expenses (11.99%), gambling (9.86%), travel (8.38%), professional services (7.95%), medical expense (6.57%), licensed goods (5.48%), media broadcast rights (3.64%), sponsorships (3.34), facility constructions (1.29%), multimedia (1.15%), endorsements (0.47%), and internet (0.12%).

Of various sport sectors and competition levels, professional sport is the biggest constitute of the spectator sport industry (Howard & Crompton, 2005; Stotlar, 2009). A total of 42 professional leagues belong to four professional sports across the North American continent, including 25 baseball leagues, four American football leagues, four basketball leagues, and 10 hockey leagues. The attendance figures for the four major professional sports (i.e., Major League Baseball, National Football League, National Basketball Association, and National Hockey League) also indicate the immense size of spectator sport, with over 134 million people attending at least one of the four major professional sports in 2009 (National Sports Marketing Network, 2010). One thing that most major cities in the U.S., from New York to Los Angeles, have in

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common is that they all have at least one professional sport franchise. A majority of the U.S. population lives within one of 39 metropolitan areas, where at least one of the professional sport teams reside (Zhang et al., 2004). In general, American cities tend to place a high value on the presence of professional sports in their communities. The financial value of professional sports and the ripple effects associated with them in terms of creating new business and generating revenues reflect the immense power of sports in modern society. Sport fans as direct consumers of sport products spend a considerable amount of money for a variety of sport products, and spectator annual spending alone amounts to $26.17 billion (Kim, Zhang, & Ko, 2010).

National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), National Association of

Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), and National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA) are governing bodies for collegiate athletics, of which NCAA is the primary organization. NCAA currently has over 1,200 member institutions that are classified as Division I, II, or III

competition levels. By 2000, NCAA college athletics had become a $4.0 billion enterprise (Fulks, 2000), and it continued to grow at a terrific speed in recent years. According to the NCAA financial report, the average revenue for athletic programs in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) increased from $25.1 million in 2001 to $29.4 million in 2003, and to approximately $35.4 million in 2006 (Fulks, 2005, 2008). However, although the growth of revenues has continued steadily, expenses seem to grow even faster. The average athletic expenses had grown at 7 to 8% annually from 2001 to 2006, which was double of the 3.7% average annual increase in total university spending during the same period (Fulks, 2008). The facility expansion projects, spiraling coaches‟ salaries, and compliance of Title IX requirements have all significantly caused the explosion of college athletic budgets (Greenberg, 2008).

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There are more people involved in sports at the high school and youth sports level than most other levels combined. Over 35 million children aged 3 to 14, 70 million parents, and 3.5 million coaches participate in organized sport practices and competitions each year (Covell, 2005). At the middle and high school levels, schools usually offer sport programs through physical education classes, extra-curricular activities, intramural competitions, and varsity teams. Sports at these school levels support the academic missions of education, as they are extensions of core educational programs. Students that participate in school athletics tend to have higher grade point averages, better school attendance rates, lower drop-out rates, healthier eating habits, more consistent exercise programs, and fewer discipline problems than students not involved in formal athletics (Vrcan, 1986). According to the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), the primary governing body of interscholastic athletics, over seven million high school students regularly participate in training and competitions each year in the U.S. Besides the NFHS and its state associations, many national, state, and community youth league organizations (e.g., American Youth Soccer, Little League Baseball), nonschool youth sport organizations (e.g., YMCA, YWCA, Boys and Girls Club), municipal park and recreation departments, and faith-based organizations provide youth athletic programs.

The health, fitness, and sport club sector of the sport industry has experienced

tremendous growth since the 1970s. This trend is in part due to increased concern of the obesity epidemic, medical costs, consciousness of disease prevention, and adoption of a physically active lifestyle. Over 50 million Americans regularly participate in sport or fitness activities at least 100 days per year. There are approximately 64,200 fitness facilities in the U.S; of them, commercial clubs are dominating health clubs, with over 20,200 clubs serving over 22 million members. A breakdown of health and fitness clubs includes 25% health and sport clubs, 21% hotel/resort/spa

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facilities, 10.4% member-owned clubs, 8.3% apartment facilities, 8.3 college facilities, and 6.3% racquet, religious, public, and corporate facilities, respectively. Prior to the 1990s, clubs were single club operations. In recent years, major club chains and franchise groups are becoming a driving force, such as the Gold‟s Gym, Bally‟s, and 24 Hour Fitness. Many health and fitness clubs have established service relationships with organizations within the health care industry. Also, nonprofit clubs and facilities (e.g., YMCAs, YWCAs, and hospitals) are competing with commercial clubs (McDonald & Howland, 2005). In recent years, commercial martial arts schools have greatly increased throughout the continent of America. There are approximately 13,950 martial arts schools in the U.S. alone (Info-USA, 2007). Over a period of 10 years, the number of martial arts participants increased from 3.8 million in 1993 to 4.6 million in 2004, and the most significant increase in participants‟ sports from 2002 to 2003 was martial arts, increasing by 15% (Sport Business Research Network, 2008). Among various styles of martial arts in the U.S., Taekwondo (TKD) has become the most popular martial arts discipline and an Olympic sport. Taekwondo is a form of martial arts, which originated in Korea. Due to its recognized physical and psychological benefits, TKD has now risen to prominence in the global arena (Kim, Zhang, & Ko, 2009).

Action sports, also called extreme sports, are an increasingly popular sport industry genre.

Usually, action sports refer to wakeboarding, skateboarding, inline skating, BMX biking, motocross, snowboarding, street lugging, and surfing. Nearly 100 million people throughout the world participated in some forms of action sports each year and these sports continue to escalate in popularity. Partly due to television publicity, action sports have reached a vast audience and have had a steady, annual growth with a 35% increase in participation since 1995. Action sports have expanded to become “an emerging genre of individualistic sports” and have captured a

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culture and new generation seeking to move away from traditional sports. The sudden rise and success of action sports are often correlated to its relationship with television and sponsorships. The Summer XGames were first broadcasted in 1995 by ESPN as a stage to display action sports on television and create a new programming market for ESPN. Two years later, the Winter X Games followed, with such sport competitions as snowboarding and skiing. As a result of the X Games‟ success, NBC countered by creating the now-defunct Gravity Games and Gorge Games. NBC‟s events developed into the first action sports tour - the Dew Tour, in 2005. The Dew Tour is currently a five city/event action sports tour competition, and has a winter version - Winter Dew Tour. Action sports events, as well as their fan base, have intensified and become more defined each year. The X Games created an Asian event, the Kia X Games Asia, in 1999 that are very popular. The 2010 Kia X Games Asia featured about 200 action sports athletes in the Asia Pacific region. The Winter X Games were held outside the U.S. for the first time in France in 2010, further indicating that action sports have become a major force in the sport industry. When snowboarding debuted as an Olympic sport in 1998, action sports became even more solidified as a mainstream sport. The increase in popularity has allowed event managers to charge admission to the typically free events and increase event sponsorship costs. Action sports, like many sporting events, have become sponsorship driven because the sports target the young, yet powerful, sport consumers (Cianfrone & Zhang, 2006).

It was reported that close to150 million television viewers watched the annual Super Bowl. The same phenomenon is also true in NCAA Division I men‟s basketball and football, which are considered to be the two main revenue producers for collegiate athletic departments (Fulks, 2008). In 2005, nearly 1.3 million people watched the March Madness college men‟s basketball games online (Rein, Kotler, & Shields, 2006). Professional sport leagues also obtain a

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large percentage of their income from media products. The most lucrative television market in professional sport is the NFL, which profits approximately three billion dollars annually from television contracts. Revenue streams for sports have evolved over time; yet, no other outlet has been more profound than that provided by television (Shank, 2008). Likewise, Rosner and Shropshire (2004) stated that “in most industries, a revenue stream periodically appears that ultimately leads to a fundamental change in the way that the industry conducts business” (p. 139), and the sport industry is no exception. As a broadcasting company, NBC spent a record of $2.3 billion to secure the broadcasting rights for the Olympic Games in 2004, 2006, and 2008. Annually, the networks of NBC, CBS, ABC, and FOX together generated over $5 billion in televised sport programs that are primarily from prime time advertising, accounting for more than 70% of market share in the entire televised sport industry. Income from broadcasting has provided sport organizations with needed funds for their operations (Shank, 2008). For example, in recent years the national television networks generate an annual average of $3.7 billion for the NFL (Pedersen, Miloch, & Maucella, 2007). Media interest in college sport has also been noteworthy. For example, CBS entered into a six-year $11 billion contract to televise the NCAA football and basketball events (Shank, 2008). According to Coakley (2007), the relationship between sport and broadcasting is reciprocal. Each has influenced and depended on each other for its popularity and commercial success. Broadcast media emphasize sport entertainment in the form of action and drama, offer play-by-play descriptions and interpretations, and provide immediacy in coverage of on-the-spot action. Without broadcasting, the popularity of many spectator sports would be seriously limited. Mass spectator sports have a special dependence on television for direct revenue, publicity, and athlete income. Some sports have to change rules, schedule, package, and presentation in order to accommodate televised broadcasting. Consequently, sport has formed a

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symbiotic partnership with the television media such that sport organizations generate substantial amount of profit from selling the rights of televising their games to broadcast entities. Then, the broadcast entities utilize sport as a vehicle to attract advertisers and access demographically attractive audiences with significant buying power (Shank, 2008; Rosner & Shropshire, 2004).

China is a growing economic power and was the host of the 2008 Olympic Games. In China, the reform-induced economic growth during the last two decades has led to the rapid development of the tourism industry (Witt & Turner, 2002). For many years, international tourism was essentially non-existent in China. It was not until 1978 when the country started to open up to the outside world (Wen, 1998). The Chinese tourism industry started to grow and has since expanded to such an extent that China has become one of the world‟s most popular destinations (Dong, Droege, & Johnson, 2002; Wen, 1998). The World Tourism Organization (WTO) predicts that by 2020, China will be the number one tourist destination in the world with inbound tourist arrivals estimated at 210 million and the United States is a major inbound market and an important potential source of tourists for China (WTO, 1997). Well-conceived, carefully planned, and executed hallmark events can increase international awareness and knowledge of a destination (Ritchie, 1999). As the global competition for prominence among countries has intensified, there has been a growing awareness of the potentially significant impact that hosting mega events such as the Olympic Games can have on a country‟s image, particularly through the media coverage that these events receive (Chalip, Green, & Hill, 2003). As Essex and Chalkley (1998) explained, “in the modern global economy in which major world cities compete for investment, the Olympics represent a unique publicity platform and opportunity for place marketing” (p. 201). There has been a growing recognition of the relationship between sport and tourism in recent years (Byon & Zhang, 2010). Sport tourism is the fastest growing tourism

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sector globally. The development and growth of sport tourism has been facilitated particularly by the growth of both mega-scale and regularly held, small-scale events (Toohey, Taylor, & Lee, 2003). Sport tourism is now a $2.4 billion industry in Canada, and one of the fastest growing sectors within the tourism industry. In the U.S., more than 85 million adults reported they had attended one or more sport events while they were traveling, indicating a growing phenomenon of event sport tourism. Sport tourism is “leisure-based travel that takes individuals temporarily outside of their home communities to participate in physical activities, to watch physical activities, or to venerate attractions associated with physical activities” (Gibson, 1998, p. 49). Event sport tourism, where participants travel to watch sports and sport related hallmark and mega events, is an important kind of sport tourism (Gibson, Qi, & Zhang, 2008). Mega and small-scale sporting events could considerably increase community visibility and image, stimulation of urban development, and psychic income of residents (Byon & Zhang, 2010; Crompton, 2004; Gibson et al., 2008). Higham (1999) defined small-scale sport events as “regular season sporting competitions (e.g., ice hockey, basketball, soccer, rugby leagues)” (p. 87). Unlike mega-sporting events, small-scale sporting events are usually performed by local professional team(s), intercollegiate, or interscholastic team(s) on a regular or seasonal basis. According to Byon and Zhang (2010), small-scale events may lead to similar social, economical, and psychological impacts that would have been generated by a mega-sporting event. Destination image is an important factor that likely exert significant impact on the decision making process of sport tourists.

In the retail segment of the sport industry, combined sales of licensed merchandise of major professional leagues and universities in the U.S. have doubled from $5.35 billion in 1990 to $26 billion in 2008 (Shank, 2008). Direct sales of merchandise at sports sites are also a very

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profitable area in sport. For example, Howard and Crompton (2005) estimated this market trend would continue to grow. Merchandise sales have increased even in minor league levels of sport. The total year-end licensed merchandise sales in minor league baseball were nearly $40 million in 2004. Not only are sales of merchandise an important source of revenue generation for many sport organizations, but there may also be a synergistic effect with other financial opportunities within the sport industry. For instance, it is easy to observe sport fans wearing or possessing several items of sport merchandise (e.g., hats, T-shirts, mugs, etc.) while consuming sport (e.g., attending, participating, or watching sporting games or events). Therefore, it is evident that sales of sport merchandise contribute to the overall consumption of sport.

Recent technology advancements have drastically expanded the platforms of sport consumption. These include, but are not limited to, internet, wireless service, iPod, iPhone, virtual advertising, webcasting, podcasting, geocasting, fantasy games, and video games. Of these segments, the video gaming industry is a $6.4 billion business in the United States (Entertainment Software Association, 2007). Sport video games are consistently a popular genre of video games. In 2006, a sport video game, Madden NFL 07 on the PlayStation 2 platform, was the top selling game of all genres. The number of 18-34 year old sport fans turning to sport video games (SVGs) as a form of entertainment continues to increase. A part of their popularity is attributed to the visual likeness and authenticity of the games with traditional televised sports. The characteristics of SVGs are of interactive, fantasy based, realistic, and repetitive nature. In a merging of the classic business relationship between sports and advertising, corporations are advertising within sport video games as an avenue to reach the sport fans, while the

advertisements contribute to the realism of the game. There are numerous sport video game titles; some mimic traditional organized sports, such as soccer, football, baseball, golf, and tennis,

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while others appeal to fans of more untraditional sports, such as bass fishing, skateboarding, and motocross racing. The games are sold in various platforms, through which the games can be played on personal computers or with console gaming systems. A video game console is a computer system used exclusively for gaming purposes. Within the past 15 years, Sony (PlayStation2 and PlayStation3), Microsoft (Xbox and Xbox 360), and Nintendo (GameCube and the Wii) have been the key console manufacturers (Forster, 2005). Handheld devices are also popular, such as the Sony PlayStation Portable (PSP) and the Nintendo DS console systems are popular for sport video gaming due to a number of reasons. Consoles are developed completely for gaming usage; so they often work at faster processor speeds, allowing the athlete‟s game movements to be realistic. The nature of console gaming also allows the player to use a handheld controller to play the game, rather than a keyboard or joystick, while the game is displayed on a television, rather than a computer monitor. Console manufacturers are also keeping pace with technological advances. The Xbox 360 and PlayStation3 consoles have capabilities to utilize high definition gaming formats in conjunction with high definition televisions. These two consoles also have online capabilities, allowing the owners to play gamers across the globe. Some of the appeal of SVGs is the resemblance to televised sports and the technological control that is allowed in the games. SVGs allow the gamer to act as a coach and/or player of the selected sport. The gamer has control over every aspect of the game, including selecting teams/players to utilize while playing, assigning starting lineups, selecting uniforms, stadiums/arenas, weather conditions, play calling, athlete moves, and even celebration dances. The ability for people to “play” as their favorite player or coach their favorite team has appeal to many sport fans. The experience to fulfill a fantasy is a unique characteristic of video games and has contributed to high volume of sport video game consumption and technological improvement

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by game publishers. Electronic Arts (EA) is a prominent game publisher; its sports segment, EA Sports, is among the leading companies in sport video games with 70% of the market share. 2KSports, owned by parent company Take-Two Interactive Software, is another major sport video game publisher. The licensing contracts between sport organizations and game publishers allow the games to utilize the team logos, uniforms, and players of the leagues, adding credibility and realism to the video games. The exclusivity of a publishing company to create realistic games comes at a high price tag. As evidenced by the NFL and NFL Players Association‟s $300 million, five year contract with EA Sports, gaming is a lucrative licensing outlet for leagues and organizations.

With the popularity of sports and the fanatical spending nature of sport spectators, advertising and sponsorships in the sport industry have reached record numbers (Meenaghan, 2001). Corporations are constantly searching for innovative and effective advertising methods to reach sport audiences. Advertisements in the sports realm are not a new concept. Richards and Curran (2002) define advertising as a paid, mediated form of communication from an identifiable source that is designed to persuade the receiver to take some action. Sponsorships during a live or televised sport event, in a newspaper or magazine, or for a radio broadcast are generally categorized as advertisements. Of these different types of advertisements, television commercials during an athletic event are one of the most common types in the sports industry. A recognizable example of the impact and high cost of a sport commercial is the NFL‟s Super Bowl, in which 2 to 4 million dollars can be the price for a 30-second commercial during the game. The American culture is accustomed to seeing commercials on television, and the quick pace of society dictates the speed of a 30-second television commercial. Corporations realize that this is the case and sponsor television programs that feed to their target audience. Sports have a wide audience, and

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almost 75% of all Americans watch sports at least once a week on television (Stotlar & Johnson, 1989; Pope & Voges, 1997). The potential of advertisement cluttering may compel some companies to utilize different methods of obtaining the awareness of potential consumers. Sponsorships are another common form of advertisements. Sponsorships are different from traditional advertisements as a sponsorship has an association between the message and medium (Madrigal, 2001). Sport sponsorship, defined by Pope (1998) as “the provision of resources (e.g., money, people, equipment) by an organization (the sponsor) directly to an individual, authority or body (the sponsee), to enable the latter to pursue some activity in return for benefits contemplated in terms of the sponsor‟s promotion strategy, and which can be expressed in terms of corporate, marketing, or media objectives” (p. 21), is common in sports. The companies hope to meet their objectives and have return on their investments; meanwhile, the athletes and event organizers reap the initial monetary benefits and public notoriety. Athlete endorsements are a type of sponsorship that allows an immediate link between a product and the sport. Athlete endorsements are prevalent in nearly every professional sport, and athlete endorsements are perhaps even more vital to the athletes in individual sports than team sports because many athletes usually do not receive a salary. Athletes seek endorsements to pay for their entrance fees and traveling expenses in major sport events and are often their means for athletic survival. Similar to the general sponsorship research, many benefits exist for having athletes and celebrities endorse a company‟s related sporting product. Three major benefits include: (a) increased awareness, (b) image building, and (c) athlete testimony (Cianfrone & Zhang, 2006).

With a crowded sport marketplace, sport consumers have many options in which to spend their leisure time and discretionary dollars. As a result, sport organizations face stiff competitions in

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an effort to gain market share. Mullin, Hardy, and Sutton (2007) stated that “competition for sport dollar is growing at the pace of a full-court press” (p. 7) to describe the intensity of the competitive sport marketplace. According to Zhang, Smith, Pease, and Jambor (1997), market competition also comes from many other forms of leisure and entertainment options. It is important for sport organizations to understand related variables that affect the quality and competitiveness of the sport product. Sport organizations need to develop effective strategic management and marketing plans that are based on an in-depth understanding of current and potential consumers. Social Value of Sport

Value is an “enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence” (Rokeach, 1973, p. 5). Rokeach and Ball-Rokeach (1989) provided a comprehensive list of personal values that are classified into two domains: (a) terminal and (b) instrumental. Terminal values are ultimate end-goals of existence, whereas instrumental values are those beliefs that direct behavior toward broader end states. Terminal values include such aspect as security, social recognition, and freedom; whereas, instrumental values include such aspect as ambitious, obedient, and self-controlled. A set of values allow people to connect them with society because they help individuals evaluate and understand interpersonal relationships and guide the individuals‟ adaptation to the surrounding world. Values are also conceptualized as criteria used by individuals to evaluate, select, and justify their actions (Grunert-Beckman & Askegard, 1997). Values are often categorized according to their importance to the individual, which in turn influences the role of an individual. These values play a significant role in determining one‟s attitudes and behaviors (Homer & Kahle, 1988). There are different ways to

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define human values and five main features of values are identified: (a) are concepts or beliefs, (b) are about desirable end states or behaviors, (c) transcend specific situations, (d) guide selection or evaluation of behavior and events, and (e) are ordered by relative importance (Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987). Values influence people‟s attitude toward social events and objects, and play a role in such areas as political inclination (e.g., Rokeach, 1973; Schwartz, 1992), economic beliefs (e.g., Dickinson, 1991), advertising and communication strategy (e.g., Prensky & Wright-Isak, 1997), and consumer product choice (e.g., Allen, Ng, & Wilson, 2002), to name a few. Values directly influence interests, activities, and roles, which in turn influence sport consumer behaviors. Values have been found to be linked with certain demographic profiles and used to segment spectators for developing marketing strategies (Kahle, Duncan, Dalakas, & Aiken, 2001).

Researchers have taken multidimensional approaches to studying value. Major

dimensions of values are functional, emotional, and social (Sanchez-Fernandez & Iniesta-Bonillo, 2007). Functional value refers to the “perceived utility and acquired from an alternative‟s capacity for functional, utilitarian or physical performance” (Sheth, Newman, & Gross, 1991, p. 160). Functional value signifies benefit-sacrifice relationship. Social value is acquired by interacting with various types of social groups and becomes a basis for social class and prestige. Social values influence a wide range of human behavior and are integral to understanding the societal science (Kahle, Poulos, & Sukhdial, 1988). Emotional value is associated with internal feelings or affective states (Sanchez-Fernandez & Iniesta-Bonillo, 2007). Values are created based on heritage and life experiences, and those values influence subsequent behaviors.

People are usually aware of the physical benefits of participating in sport activities, which include both health-related and motor-related fitness. Health-related fitness benefits are achieved

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in the areas of body composition, cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, agility, and balance. In addition to these fitness fundamentals,

motor-related fitness focuses on muscular power, basic movement skills (running, jumping, and throwing), and sport specific skills (Baumgartner, Jackson, Mahar, & Rowe, 2007). According to Chelladurai and Riemer (1997), participation in organized sport provides physical and psychological outcomes at both individual and team levels. At individual level, sport

participation enhances athletic performance, goal attainment, skill improvement, personal growth, contribution to team, immersion/involvement, belongingness, friendship, social support, and perseverance; at team level, sport participation contributes to team performance, goal attainment, team maturity, group integration, interpersonal harmony, norm and ethics, equality, decision making, and leadership.

As sport is such an import part of modern society with its educational, social, and economic impacts, various researchers have attempted to systematically examine its value to the community and society at large. Two major approaches are commonly adopted when studying sport value, including economic and social perspectives. Numerous studies examined the economic impact and financial benefits of sport facilities and sport teams (Rosentraub & Swindell, 2002; Siegfried & Zimbalist, 2000; Zimbalist, 1998). These studies usually examined the overall costs and gains of sport facilities, validity of public subsidy for sport facilities, and subsequent effects on regional economic activities. Although skeptical views about professional sports and public funding of sport facility prevail, sport economists acknowledge that professional sports contribute to the society in such a way that mathematical analysis often underestimates. For the most part, this approach focuses on the direct economic effect and often ignores the intangible value that sport events deliver to the community. Thus, they often fail to

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provide information regarding the indirect benefits that professional sports contribute to the community (Swindell & Rosentraub, 1998).

The other area of research has focused on the social value and norms entailed in sport. Studies in this area emphasize the value of sport as a means to accomplish educational, social, and health goals. These studies provided implications for how sport contributes to individuals in learning to conform to social norms, value of teamwork, and discipline as established by society (Coakley, 2007; Eitle & Eitle, 2002; Melnick, 1993; Smith & Ingham, 2003). Recent studies have suggested that intangible rewards that sports bring into the community compensate for the investment of public resources. Intangible benefits such as civic pride, reputation, image, psychic income, community integration, and improved quality of life are critical factors for the overall development of a community. Psychic income refers to the emotional and psychological benefit that sport consumers experience and perceive (Crompton, 2004; Sparvero & Chalip, 2007). In particular, it is widely believed that professional sport franchises would produce substantial revenue to regenerate the post-industrial deprived communities, and thus improve social, economic, and environmental aspects of the urban centers of America (Euchner, 1993). Professional sports were seen as a way to repair the image of large cities, as well as a way to make smaller cities appear big-league (Quirk & Fort, 1992). Local city leaders tried to obtain the attention of potential investors and visitors by means of successful professional sports because successful sport teams were considered a vehicle to attract public attention to their communities via national media (Whitson & Macintosh, 1993).

For a better understanding of the value of sport in a community, Zhang, Pease, and Hui. (1996) developed the Community Impact Scale (CIS). The CIS measures the essential social value dimensions of sport and provides empirical evidence to support the presence of a sport

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team in the community. There are eight factors in the CIS: Community Solidarity, Public Behavior, Social Equity, Pastime Ecstasy, Health Awareness, Individual Quality, Excellence Pursuit, and Business Opportunity. These factors were recently confirmed by Kim et al. (2010). These eight dimensions are consistent with social value (i.e., Community Solidarity, Citizenship Behavior, Social Equity), personal value (i.e., Pastime Ecstasy, Health Awareness, Individual Quality, Excellence Pursuit), and functional value (i.e., Business Opportunity) aspects. Expansion of Career Opportunities

Growth of the sport industry has provided many unique and exciting job opportunities. Based on specialized employment responsibilities and duties, these opportunities usually fall into the following six general categories: (a) administration, (b) marketing, (c) entrepreneurship, (d) media, (e) representation, and (f) other areas (Siter, 1999). A majority of students begin building a career in the sport industry at an entry level position through academic preparations and guidance of faculty members, advisors, job placement officers, and internship supervisors. It takes tremendous learning, working experience, efforts, commitment, and perseverance for an individual to advance on the ladder of the employment levels within the sport industry.

There is a great diversity of employment opportunities in the sport industry. In professional sport leagues, professional positions include, but are not limited to, the following: commissioner, league office personnel, team general manager, chief financial officer, coach, medical personnel, team front-office personnel, manager of sales, marketing director, director of media relations, director of community relations, event coordinator, facility and equipment managers, director of player education and relations, general legal counsel, and sport agent for athletes and coaches. Among many skills, individuals seeking employment opportunities in

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professional sport organizations need to have the knowledge of league constitution, bylaws, rules and regulations, standard player contract, and collective bargaining agreement.

Due to elevated business operations, in recent years employment opportunities in intercollegiate sport settings have gradually moved away from the traditional career

advancement path of athlete → coach → administrator. Specialized administrative positions are becoming the norm in Division I athletic programs; whereas, positions with broader ranges of responsibilities are still available in smaller athletic programs at Division II and III levels. Typical job positions include, but are not limited to, athletics director, associate or assistant athletic director, coach, academic coordinator, financial manager, compliance manager, fund development, public relations manager, event and facility manager, marketing director, director of information, ticket sales manager, equipment manager, and athletic training. In addition to traditional administrative positions, new areas of specialized responsibilities may include student-athlete services (academic advising, tutoring, and counseling), fund development, and compliance (i.e., adherence to NCAA and conference rules and regulations).

In interscholastic and youth sport organizations, career opportunities are increasingly developed and various positions are often available. These include, but not limited to, athletic director, leagues director, coach, event and facility manager, athletic trainer and physical therapist, and referee. For recreational sports, societal demand for sport activities in recent years have le d recreation specialist positions in both public and private sectors at national, state, and local levels to be one of top five employment opportunities for college graduates. Employment opportunities may include, but are not limited to, activity director, facility manager, sales manager, instructor, referee, tour guide, program coordinator, camp counselor, recreation therapist, and support staff.

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From time to time, International Olympic Committee (IOC), international federations of sports, national Olympic Committees (NOC), national governing bodies, and organizing committees of Olympic Games publicly post employment positions that are not intended to be filled from internal selections. These positions can be in a wide range of specialized, professional areas covering many industrial sectors, fields, and disciplines. Mastery of a second language and possessing cultural awareness are usually fundamental requirements for these positions. Additionally, due to the growth of corporate sport advertising and sponsorships, many major corporations in the world have established a sport marketing department, where managerial, marketing, and staff positions are often established. Today, many sport management, marketing firms, or companies providing services to sport organizations and corporations, such as the International Management Group (IMG), Premier Management Group (PMG), and National Sports Marketing Network (NSMN), offer career opportunities. Athletic apparel and footwear companies also provide employment positions in sales, marketing, and management.

Coaching an athletic team is a popular and challenging career path among former athletes and non-athletes alike. The coaching profession entails managing and leading the athletes of a sport organization and can be a very rewarding career. The life of a coach appeals to those who desire to teach, mentor, and work with athletes on a daily basis in improving their technical skills and athletic ability. It is an exciting field, but can be challenging to break into a full time position due to the competitive nature of the industry. The role of the coach as a full time profession has followed the history of organized sport. Historically, sport teams were coached by the

athletes/players themselves, former players, or physical educators (Wiggins, 1995). As organized sport became more popular and national/professional leagues were developed, the need for full time coaches became apparent. This shift led to an extremely specialized field of coaching and it

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has become a viable profession. Coaching can be a full time profession, a part time position paired with a full time career as an educator, or a volunteer position. Typically, the levels of the coaching profession include youth sport (privatized or recreational/public), interscholastic sport (high school, middle school, and elementary school), intercollegiate sport (colleges and universities), and professional sport (international or national). Each level requires some of the same fundamental knowledge and skill sets; however, the level of coaching experience and expertise varies by levels.

One area of coaching is within the large umbrella of youth sports. Public or recreational organizations manage one segment of youth sport, namely recreational sport. The mission of public or recreational sport organizations is to provide sport opportunities for children with all skill levels. These organizations often rely on volunteer coaches to sustain their leagues. Because of the non-profit nature of these recreational organizations, volunteer coaches such as parents are critical for maintaining league success in providing many children the opportunity to play organized sports. Typically, a coaching career at the youth sport level occurs only on the competitive levels. However, coaching at the youth recreational level can be a very positive experience as a coach has the opportunity to influence children in a variety of ways.

Many children desire a higher level of skill and competition. Some countries have developed youth Olympic based programs, which are highly competitive and selective. The advancement of sport specialization has led to privatized coaching and privatized club sport. Fees for playing in these clubs are often expensive, which affords the organization the ability to hire full time coaches who provide a high level of expertise to the children. In addition to clubs or competitive teams, some sport training complexes are devoted solely to professional instructions. Organizations such as the IMG Academy, Velocity Sports Performance, and

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DeBartolo Sports University are popular privatized training centers in the United States. The IMG Academy attracts athletes from all over world to train and receive guidance in its first-rate facilities and by a premier coaching staff. The academy provides specialized coaching in tennis, golf, soccer, baseball, basketball, football, lacrosse, and general athletic performance for children to professionals.

Another career path in coaching is within the interscholastic sport system. Coaches of elementary, middle, and high schools often have dual roles in teaching at the schools and coaching. In addition to organizing practice schedules, teaching fundamental sport skills and tactics, and preparing competition strategies, interscholastic coaches handle their team budgets, fundraising, and travel schedules. Coaches are usually paid a stipend for coaching the teams in season. The stipend is not a full time salary, as these coaches are often also teachers at the schools. In the U.S., full time careers as a youth coaches on the recreational level are rare and any pay associated with coaching at that level is typically low. Volunteers, including parents wanting to spend time with their children and help the teams/leagues, typically house these positions. Competitive or club coaching salaries vary depending on if it is a private organization, national youth Olympic development program, or an academy.

Colleges and universities provide many opportunities to coach in a full time position. Functions of a coach are governed by the respective collegiate organizing bodies for athletics, namely the NCAA, NAIA, NJCAA, and Canadian Interuniversity Sport. Coaches have to understand and work within the rules of the organizing body, recruit athletes, and manage the team. The competition level of coaching in the NCAA influences the roles of the coaches. Division I is the most competitive level, focusing on national level competitions; coaches at these institutions are required to focus strictly on the acquisition of athletic skills, competition

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achievement, and personal development of student athletes. Coaches may have a large staff, as well as an extensive budget. The high pressure for achievement in the work environment comes with a lucrative salary. Division II and III institutions are more focused on regional competition and participation. Division II coaching staffs are moderate in size, budgets, recruiting, and promotional responsibilities. At the lowest level of competition in Division III, coaches are often part time coaches, working as an academic teacher or within the athletic departments as a staff member (Barr, 2005).

International, national, and professional sport organizations and leagues are considered the highest level of competitive sport. National Governing Bodies (NGBs), National Sport Organizations (NSOs), or professional leagues (e.g., the National Basketball Association) have many coaching positions for the teams. The responsibilities of coaching at this level focus on highest levels of expertise and both technical and physical sport knowledge. Salaries at this level are often very lucrative as it is such a specialized and often publicized position. Success and failure of these sport organizations is often determined through winning. Responsibilities of coaches often received tremendous media exposure and are often under public scrutiny. An example of such highly publicized event was the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The top head coach salary of the 2010 World Cup teams was the English National Team‟s coach, Fabio Capello, whose annual salary was 8.800.000 €. Ten World Cup teams had head coaches earn more than 1.000.000 over the year (Afriknews.com, 2009).

Working with children and young adults as a coach allows for the opportunity to aid in the development of the athlete‟s physical, social, mental, and emotional states (Sportscotland, 2010). This level is very rewarding in that a coach serves as a mentor. Certainly, there are

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challenges within coaching. A coach will have to juggle many relationships with the players, the parents of the players, the league, school administrators, and possibly media and alumni; so effective communications among various constituencies is important. As coaches work closely with children and young adults, they should undergo background checks for sexual abuse and other criminal offenses (Barr, 2005). Professional Preparation for Employment

With the advancement and competition within the sport industry, specialized academic preparation is essential for individuals seeking employment opportunities and advance in the profession. A majority of undergraduate sport management programs in North America require students to first take general education training, which usually includes such course as literature, history, philosophy, sociology, political sciences, psychology, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, human movement, business administration, accounting, finance, marketing, and art and music. Following the curriculum standards developed by National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) and North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM), a graduate of an undergraduate sport management program is expected to at least have taken the following courses: sociocultural dimensions in sport, management and leadership in sport, ethics in sport management, marketing in sport, communication in sport, budget and finance in sport, legal aspects of sport, economics in sport, governance in sport, and field experiences in sport management. Individuals pursuing a master‟s degree are expected to be trained in research methods, measurement and evaluation, and data analyses in addition to these subject areas taught at graduate level. Throughout the academic preparation, practicum and internship are necessary in order to connect theories with practice. An individual‟s resume and employability can be

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drastically enhanced by experiences gained through practicum, internship, leadership roles in student associations, volunteer work, work-study, and part-time/summer employment.

Developing professional abilities is just as important as learning the content of

knowledge. A student is expected to possess critical thinking skills in understanding societal and global concerns, generating ideas, and seeking effective solutions. Traditionally, a sport manager needs to have effective leadership skills, problem-solving abilities, human resource talents, knowledge in law and regulatory procedures, and sensitivity to gender, ethnicity, and cultural issues. As sport organizations are increasingly becoming market driven, it is imperative for professionals to possess the expertise in marketing, budgeting, and financial management. A trained professional to work in the sport industry needs to have strong writing, speaking, and media relations skills, which are often tangible credentials for career advancement.

An area that does not receive adequate attention is related to establishing a professional image, which often plays a subtle role in employment opportunities and career advancement. There is a saying, „You never get the second chance to make a first impression.‟ A well-received professional image can only be established through sustained efforts in business etiquette, good body posture, proper grooming, elegant attire and accessories, and most importantly, right work attitude. Appropriate professional characteristics include such traits as being polite, respectful, honest, sincere, reliable, consistent, accountable, and persistent. One very desirable professional trait is an individual‟s capability to initiate. Initiatives enable one to get in the door, learn about different aspects of the organization, increase network, show commitment to the organization, and indicate one‟s creativity and potential. Additionally, job complexity and magnitude in sport organizations make team work an essential element in the work place. It is very constructive for an employee to develop positive work relationships with peers, be a good observer, become a

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good listener, develop professional network, embrace diversity, support others by offering assistance, and learn to manage conflict.

An individual‟s success depends on how he/she enters a new organization, approaches the challenges, learns the organizational culture, develops positive work relationships,

participates in meetings, communicates ideas to others, and establishes a professional reputation. It is essential for a new employee to adapt to the new work environment, adjust expectations, master breaking-in skills, and manage impressions on others through constructive behaviors. An individual should first be a good follower, learn the organization‟s culture, mission, guiding philosophies, values, norms, work ethic, and behavioral expectations. A new hire needs to clarify with his/her supervisor about job expectations and procedures, complete job assignments, materialize professional agreements and promises, seek feedback on job performance, confirm progress, master skills to complete the tasks, and acquire new knowledge, skills, and abilities.

Coaching is an exciting and rewarding profession. Students interested in a coaching career should obtain both the appropriate education and practical experience as a coach in order to position themselves for a full time head coaching position. Securing coaching positions can be very competitive, especially at the collegiate and professional levels; so, securing a job requires determination and a well-defined plan. The quest to obtain a job in the coaching industry involves a number of factors, including different personal skills, coaching knowledge,

professional traits, work experience, and networking. The NASPE Standards in the U.S. specifies eight domains of coaching competencies (American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 2009). These domains are helpful for all coaches, regardless of cultural contexts and competition levels. The domains include: (a) philosophy and ethics, (b) safety and injury prevention, (c) physical conditioning, (d) growth and development, (e) teaching and

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communication, (f) sport skills and tactics, (g) organization and administration, and (h) evaluation. In the initial stages of becoming a coach, developing a coaching philosophy is a critical stage although it may change over time (Martens, 2004). A coaching philosophy is the foundation for every coach and allows a coach to make decisions based on defined objectives. A strong set of values and ethical behavior are needed, especially in leagues dealing with youth or young adults. Coaches are often required to follow a code of professional conduct developed by the sport organizations they represent.

Leadership is another critical trait necessary for a coach at any competition level. It is a

process that includes influencing the task objectives and strategies of a team, influencing the team members to implement the strategies and achieve the objectives, influencing group maintenance and identification, and influencing the team culture. Effective coaching leadership is a vital force for an athletic team in terms of developing new directions, mobilizing change, finding the right thing to do, creating opportunities, motivating athletes, and enhancing team achievement. Zhang, Jensen, and Mann (1997) indicated that there are six dimensions in coaching leadership behaviors that essential in directing the team members toward achieving team objectives: (a) training and instruction, (b) democratic behavior, (c) autocratic behavior, (d) social support, (e) positive feedback, and (f) situation consideration. Multidimensional Model of Leadership (MML) examines the leadership effectiveness of coaches. To achieve the desired outcome of athlete satisfaction and athlete performance, the coaching leadership behavior is influenced by the characteristics of the situation, members of the team, and the coach (Chelladurai, 1990). Effective coaches need a very strong level of expertise in the sport and competition level. Coaching certificates are often required in some levels. Prospective coaches can attain these skills or knowledge through playing the sport, often at a high level, attending

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coaching clinics, working as a volunteer or assistant coach, working in coaching camps, and obtaining formal coaching education.

Those aiming to develop a coaching career would benefit from completing a degree program in such academic areas as coaching, physical education, sport management, or depending on the type of sport, exercise science. A physical education degree would benefit those wanting to coach at the youth and interscholastic levels. To obtain a position in

interscholastic coaching, an individual could study education of any sub-discipline to become a teacher, then volunteer and apply for coaching positions. A sport management degree would be ideal for those interested in a career at the intercollegiate or professional level. Often, a sport management degree would provide a prospective coach with management knowledge on budgeting, fundraising, finance, leadership and management strategies, and communications. Strength and conditioning coaches would benefit from an exercise science degree with a focus on maximizing muscular strength and endurance. Graduate studies can also be beneficial to a coach, especially when it provides an opportunity to work within the university athletic department as a graduate assistant to the university‟s coaching staff. A graduate assistantship or internship with a sport organization is an opportunity to obtain hands-on experience working with athletes and learning directly from a coaching staff. Most importantly, graduate studies help improve synthesizing, analytical, and evaluative skills that are critical to the success of a coach.

A coaching certificate from an organizing group is necessary for some levels of coaching. Certification resulted from participating in an education program ensures consistency among coaches and across sport programs. Certifications assure the parents of athletes that coaches are knowledgeable and appropriately trained to work with their children. Coaching certifications usually vary based on countries, sports, and competition levels. Some countries offer coaching

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certificates through their NGBs or NSOs. For instance, United Kingdom Coaching Certificate is a national initiative to endorse coach education programs across sports throughout the United Kingdom (Sportscotland, 2010). There are four levels of certificates:

Level 1: With supervision, assisting a more qualified coach in planning and delivering

aspects of a session.

Level 2: Preparing, delivering, and reviewing a coaching session independently. Level 3: Planning, delivering, and evaluating an annual program of coaching. Level 4: This is currently under review and is intended for professional coaching and

innovative coaching methods.

Similarly, the Asian Football (soccer) Confederation (AFC) provides coaching courses to improve the talents of football coaches across Asia. The AFC is “is the governing body of Asian football and one of the six confederations making up FIFA” (Asian Football Confederation, 2010). The AFC provides three levels of coaching courses (A, B, C) for training football coaches.

Career paths of many head coaches at the professional sport level stem from networking and previous work relationship. Volunteer work, internships, or graduate assistantships are important experiences that will increase an individual‟s network. For example, in the NFL, head coaches Mike Holmgren, Ray Rhodes, Jon Gruden, and Andy Reid, all came from the coaching family of Bill Walsh and the San Francisco 49ers in the 1980s-90s (Pasquareli, 2009). Similarly, in NCAA men‟s basketball, former coach Bobby Knight has mentored nine former players into the coaching ranks, including Duke University head coach Mike Krzyzewski. Coaching conferences at national and state levels are also beneficial for individuals to attend.

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Individuals seeking managerial or coaching positions should be cognizant that there are various paths leading to a variety of positions in the sport industry; meanwhile, there is not a single avenue that provides assurance for career development and advancement. Today, there is even a trend for greater employment movement of highly trained and experienced personnel among sport organizations. Being a successful employee in one sport organization can sometimes facilitate one‟s marketability for a similar or higher post in an entirely different sport organization. At the upper echelon of sport organizations, income and associated benefits for managerial and coaching positions can be very lucrative; however, one never starts at the top level of his/her career. An individual needs to be aware that the pay scale at entry level positions is usually low, and it may take many years for an individual to be promoted to higher positions within a sport organization.

Key Terms

1. Sport industry 2. Sport tourism

3. Revenue generation 4. Advertising

5. Sport sponsorship 6. Athlete endorsement 7. Value of sport

8. Academic preparation 9. Professional development 10. Resume 11. Coaching 12. Internship 13. Certification 14. Competency 15. Leadership

Questions for Reflection

1. What are the major segments in the sport industry and which segments are of a growing trend?

2. What are major income producers for athletic teams?

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3. What are the major reasons contributing to the growth of intercollegiate athletics? 4. What are the growth trends in the health, fitness, and sport clubs?

5. Why does the sport industry have a special dependence on information technology for revenue generations and where are recent information technology advancements affecting the development of the sport industry? 6. What are major benefits of athletic endorsements?

7. What are major individual benefits of participating in sports?

8. What are major social value dimensions of sport events to a local community? 9. What are major employment opportunities in the sport industry? 10. What are major responsibilities of a coach?

11. What are major academic courses that a student desiring a career in the sport industry needs to take?

12. What are major professional abilities and characteristics that a student desiring a career in the sport industry needs to develop? 13. What are major coaching competencies?

14. What is coaching leadership and what are key dimensions of coaching leadership behaviors?

15. What are major academic programs that help a student develop a coaching career?

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